Hosting an EXPO Event as an Urban Strategy

Year 2023, Volume: 25 Issue: 3, 1091 - 1113, 26.09.2023

Senem Tezcan , Bengi Polat

https://doi.org/10.32709/akusosbil.1005232

Abstract

Cities are making strategies affecting the city brand value positively in competitive processes. One of them, a global-scale event, is EXPOs. That has significant contributions to cities beginning from the candidacy process to the post-EXPO period. The reflections of EXPOs, held in different cities each time, vary depending on the characteristics of the period. Developments, architectural approaches, and art movements are shared by host cities. The effects of events discussed in the paper, on cities and their strategies needed to be studied first to measure the impact on the host city and on a global scale and secondly to analyze their characteristic features and the differences created in their own period. For this reason, EXPOs were examined beginning from the first exhibition in 1851. Then, they were grouped systematically about their contributions to the cities. In the conclusion, opinions on how it can be handled as an urban strategy were developed. Each EXPO wants to benefit from the successes of its predecessors. The aim of the study is to reveal how taking advantage of hosting an EXPO is shaped by the internal dynamics of the event and its effects on the city. The analysis of these events shows their valuable contributions to the image, prestige, and promotion of the cities. In addition, EXPOs provide collaborations through humanity solutions, employment, and economical contributions like tourism and accelerate infrastructure and urban renewal.

Keywords

EXPO, globalization, World exhibition, mega events, urban strategies

Kentsel Bir Strateji Olarak EXPO Etkinliğine Ev Sahipliği Yapmak

Abstract

Kentler rekabetçi süreçler içerisinde marka değerini olumlu etkileyecek stratejiler üretmeye çalışmaktadır. Bunlardan biri küresel ölçekli bir etkinlik olan EXPO’dur. EXPO, adaylık sürecinden başlayarak sonrası süreç de dâhil olmak üzere kentlere katkı sağlamaktadır. Her dönem farklı kentte düzenlenen EXPO’lar, düzenlendikleri dönemin özelliklerine bağlı olarak çeşitlenmektedir. Gelişmeler, mimari yaklaşımlar, sanat akımları etkinliğe ev sahipliği yapan kentlerde dünya ile paylaşılmaktadır. Çalışmada incelenen, etkinliklerin kentlere etkileri ve ev sahipliği yapmasında stratejiler iki nedenle çalışılmaya gerek duyulmuştur. Birincisi bir mega etkinliğin kentte ve küresel ölçekte yarattığı etkilerini değerlendirmektir. İkincisi sergilerin kendi karakteristik özellikleri üzerine yoğunlaşarak, kendi dönemleri içerisinde yarattıkları farklılıkları irdelemektir. Bu amaçla ilk sergi olan 1851 sergisinden başlayarak EXPO’lar incelenmiştir. Ardından kente katkıları üzerinden sistematik bir gruplandırma yapılarak analiz edilmiştir. Sonuç kısmında kentsel bir strateji olarak EXPO’ların nasıl ele alınabileceği üzerine görüşler geliştirilmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı EXPO’ya ev sahipliği yapmanın sağladığı avantajlardan faydalanmanın etkinliğin kendi iç dinamikleri ve kente etkileri üzerinden nasıl şekillendiğinin ortaya konmasıdır. EXPO’lar, kentlerin rekabet avantajı elde etmek için ihtiyaç duyduğu imaj, saygınlık ve tanıtım değerlerini sağlamaktadır. İnsanoğlunun ortak sorunlarına çözüm arayarak küresel iş birlikleri yaratmaktadır. EXPO’lar, turizm başta olmak üzere birçok alanda istihdam yaratmakta ve ekonomik katkı sağlamakta; altyapı, kentsel yenileme gibi konularda kentlerin gelişmesini hızlandırmaktadır.

Keywords

EXPO, küreselleşme, Dünya sergisi, mega etkinlikler, kentsel stratejiler

References

• Acs, Z., Glaeser, E., Litan, R., Fleming, L., Goetz, S., Kerr, W., Klepper, S., Rosenthal, S., Sorenson, O. ve Strange, W. (2008). Entrepreneurship and Urban Success: Toward a Policy Consensus. Missouri: Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1092493
• Alıcı, S. (2017). 19. Yüzyılda Sanatın Başkenti Paris ve İzlenimcilik Akımı. İdil, 6(38), 2977-2998. doi: 10.7816/idil-06-38-22.
• Archdaily. (b.t.). UK Pavilion - Milan Expo 2015 / Wolfgang Buttress. https://www.archdaily.com/627728/uk-pavilion-milan-expo-2015-wolfgang-buttress (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Barcelo. (b.t.). The Arc de Triomf, Barcelona's gateway to modernity. https://www.barcelo.com/guia-turismo/en/spain/barcelona/things-to-do/the-arc-de-triomf-barcelonas-gateway-to-modernity/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Batuhan, T. (2020). Antalya’nın EXPO 2016 Tecrübesi ve Organizasyon Mirasının Değerlendirilmesi. İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(2), 281-298. doi: 10.17336/igusbd.656499.
• Bergdoll, B. (2003). Introduction. L. Herve (Ed), The Eiffel Tower içinde (7-16). New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
• Bilgi, Ö.B. (2019). Sultan Abdülaziz’in Avrupa Seyahati. http://trdergisi.com/sultan-abdulazizin-avrupa-seyahati/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Binkley, E. (2019). Destination Congo: Sabena Airlines and The Visual Legacy of Congolese Tourism (Yayımlanmamış lisans tezi). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
• Blakinger, K. (2016). A look back at some of the coolest attractions at the 1939 World’s Fair. https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/queens/back-attractions-1939-world-fair-article-1.2619155 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Brittain, J.E. (2005). Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: Alexander Graham Bell. Proceedings of the IEEE, 93(2), 467-470. doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2004.840443.
• Burbank, M.J., Andranovich, G. ve Heying, C.H. (2002). Mega- Events, Urban Development, and Public Policy. The Review of Policy Research, 19(3), 179-202. doi: 10.1111/j.1541-1338.2002.tb00301.x.
• Can, E. (2015). Boş Zaman, Rekreasyon ve Etkinlik Turizmi İlişkisi. İstanbul Journal of Social Sciences, 10, 1-17.
• Carrière, J.P. ve Demazière, C. (2002). Urban Planning and Flagship Development Projects: Lessons from EXPO 98, Lisbon. Planning Practice and Research, 17(1), 69-79. doi: 10.1080/02697450220125096.
• Chan, R. ve Li, L. (2017). Entrepreneurial City and the Restructuring of Urban Space in Shanghai Expo. Urban Geography, 38(5), 666-686. doi: 10.1080/02723638.2016.1139909.
• Chicago Architecture Center (b.t.). World’s Columbian Exposition Of 1893. https://www.architecture.org/learn/resources/architecture-dictionary/entry/worlds-columbian-exposition-of-1893/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• CNN Editorial Research. (2021). Eiffel Tower Fast Facts. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/11/world/europe/eiffel-tower-fast-facts/index.html (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Cornelissen, S. (2004). Sport mega-events in Africa: Processes, Impacts and Prospects. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 1(1), 39-55. doi: 10.1080/1479053042000187793.
• Çayan, D. ve Sat, N.A. (2022). Mega Etkinlikler ve Kentsel Mirasları: Birleşmiş Milletler Habitat II-İstanbul Deneyimi. İdealkent, 14(Bölgesel Çalışmalar Özel Sayısı), 478-509.
• Çetinel, E. (2012). Tarihsel Süreç İçinde Dış Cephe Kaplama Malzemelerinin Isı Yalıtımı Açısından İrdelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir.
• Çoban, İ. (2007). EXPO''nun Önü Açıldı. https://v3.arkitera.com/h22205-exponun-onu-acildi.html (Erişim tarihi: 10.07.2022).
• De Carlo, M., Canali, S., Pritchard, A. ve Morgan, N. (2009). Moving Milan Towards EXPO 2015: Designing Culture into a City Brand. Journal of Place Management and Development, 2(1), 8 – 22. doi: 10.1108/17538330910942762.
• De Staffani, A. (2011). A la Carte Urban Policies. Mega-Events: From Exceptionality to Construction of Ordinary Planning Practices. A Look at Italy: Case Study of the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Turin. Mokslas - Lietuvos ateitis 3(3), 23-29. doi: 10.3846/mla.2011.047.
• Deng, Y., Poon, S.W. ve Chan, E.H.W. (2016). Planning Mega-event Built Legacies e A Case of Expo 2010. Habitat International, 53, 163-177. doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.034.
• Domini, G. (2019). Exhibitions, Patents, and Innovation in the Early Twentieth Century: Evidence from the Turin 1911 International Exhibition. European Review of Economic History, 24(3), 578–600. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ereh/hez004.
• Doubek, J. (2022). 50 years ago, the Munich Olympics massacre changed how we think about terrorism. https://www.npr.org/2022/09/04/1116641214/munich-olympics-massacre-hostage-terrorism-israel-germany (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Dynon, N. (2011). Better City, Better Life? The Ethics of Branding the Model City at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7(3), 185–196. doi: 10.1057/pb.2011.21.
• Edizel, O. (2013). Mega-events as a Place Marketing Strategy in Entrepreneurial Cities: Izmir Expo 2015 Candidacy as a Roadmap for Hosting Expo 2020. Town Planning Review, 84(5), 633-657. doi: 10.3828/tpr.2013.33.
• Erten, S. (2008). Spatial Analysis of Mega-Event Hosting: Olympic Host and Olympic Bid Cities (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Ankara: Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi.
• Eryılmaz, S.S. ve Cengiz, H. (2012). Mega Etkinliklerin Kent Mekânına Ekonomik Yansımaları, Formula 1 Örneği. Sigma 4, Özel Sayı, 77-96.
• Fallan, K. (2014). Milanese Mediations: Crafting Scandinavian Design at the Triennali di Milano. Journal of Art History, 83(1), 1-23. doi: 10.1080/00233609.2013.878389.
• Felipe, L. (2018). EXPO’98 Ended 20 Years Ago and Returned to Eastern Zone to Lisbon. https://portugalinews.eu/expo98-ended-20-years-ago-and-returned-the-eastFcarrern-zone-to-lisbon/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Ferrari, S. ve Guala, C. (2015). Mega-events and Their Legacy: Image and Tourism in Genoa, Turin and Milan. Leisure Studies, 36(1), 119-137. doi: 10.1080/02614367.2015.1037788.
• Foundation for Economic & Industrial Research. (2015). The impact of the 2004 Olympic Games on the Greek economy. http://iobe.gr/docs/research/en/RES_05_F_15012015_REP_EN.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Franzoia, E. (b.t.). P. Zumthor Swiss Pavilion at Expo 2000 in Hanover. https://www.floornature.com/p-zumthor-swiss-pavilion-at-expo-2000-in-hanover-4032/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Freepik. (2017). Decorative Europe Map Free Vector. https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/decorative-europe-map_1107538.htm (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Gardner, W.O. (2011). The 1970 Osaka Expo And/As Science Fiction. Review of Japanese Culture and Society, 28, 26-43.
• Gotham, K.F. (2011). Resisting Urban Spectacle: The 1984 Louisiana World Exposition and the Contradictions of Mega Events. Urban Studies, 48(1) 197–214. doi: 10.1177/0042098009360230.
• Gökçen Dündar, Ş. (2010). Unvan Peşindeki Kentler: “Mega” Projeler ve “Mega Etkinlikler” Üzerinden Bir Bakış. Mimarlık, 353.
• Görkemli, H.N., Matır, L., Çelik, C. ve Seki, Ö. (2014). Kent İmajı Açısından Olimpiyatlar-Selçuk Üniversitesi Öğrencilerine Yönelik Bir Uygulama. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 2(3), 178-196. doi: 10.19145/guifd.35563.
• Güzel, B. ve Güzel, Ö. (2016). Bölge Deneyim Ekonomisine Katkı Sağlayan Expo2016’ya Yönelik Ziyaretçi Değerlendirmeleri. Ö.O. Fettahlıoğlu ve C. Birin (Ed), 3rd International Congress on Social Sciences, China to Adriatic Antalya Congress Book içinde (ss. 27-30). Adıyaman: Institution of Economic Development and Social Researches Publications.
• Gwizda, M. (2014). Exemplary Project - Swiss Pavilion 'Sound Box' Designed by Peter Zumthor. https://folio.brighton.ac.uk/user/mg237/exemplary-project-swiss-pavilion-sound-box-designed-by-peter-zumthor (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Hallaq, A.A., Ninov, I. ve Dutt, C.S. (2020). The Perceptions of Host-City Residents of the Impact of Mega-Events and Their Support: The EXPO 2020 in Dubai. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1-23. doi: 10.1080/19407963.2020.1839088.
• Hansen, B. (2007). Enlightening the World: The Statue of Liberty. Civil Engineering, 77(7), 34-35.
• Heineking, K. (2020). Süchtig Nach dem Expo-Feeling. https://www.ndr.de/geschichte/expo/20-Jahre-nach-der-Expo-2000-in-Hannover,expo618.html (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Hereźniak, M. ve Florek, M. (2018). Citizen involvement, place branding and mega events: insights from Expo host cities. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, Palgrave Macmillan, 14(2), 89-100. doi: 10.1057/s41254-017-0082-6.
• Hiller, H.H. (1995). Conventions as Mega-events A New Model for Convention-host City Relationships. Tourism Management, 16(5), 375-379. doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(95)00041-L.
• Hiller, H.H. (1998). Assessing the Impact of Mega-Events: A Linkage Model. Current Issues in Tourism, 1(1), 47-57. doi: 10.1080/13683509808667832.
• Hiller, H.H. (1999). Toward an Urban Sociology of Mega-events. R. Hutchison (Ed), Constructions of Urban Space içinde (ss. 181-205). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
• Holroyd, M. (2022). Munich massacre at 50: How a hostage crisis rocked the 1972 Olympics. https://www.euronews.com/2022/09/05/munich-massacre-at-50-how-a-hostage-crisis-marred-the-1972-olympics (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Horne, J. (2007). The Four ‘Knowns’ of Sports Mega‐Events. Leisure Studies, 26(1), 81-96. doi: 10.1080/02614360500504628.
• Inoxstyle. (b.t.). Crystal Palace. https://blog.inoxstyle.com/en/crystal-palace/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Jago, L., DeHaan, C., Dwyer, L., Lipman, G., van Lill, D. ve Vorster, S. (2010). Optimising the Potential of Mega-events: An Overview. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 1(3), 220-237. doi: 10.1108/17852951011078023.
• JDP Econ. (2017). Genoa, Italy 1992 Columbiad Expo 1992. http://jdpecon.com/expo/wfgenoa1992.html (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Jessop, T. (2018). This Surprising City is the Original Home to the Eiffel Tower. https://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/paris/articles/this-surprising-city-is-the-original-home-to-the-eiffel-tower/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Jussi, S.J. (1995). Waterfront Redevelopment and Urban Policy: The Case of Barcelona, Cardiff and Genoa. European Planning Studies, 3(1), 3–23. doi: 10.1080/09654319508720287.
• Karahan, F., Özgeriş, M., Demircan, N., Sezen, I. ve Karahan, A. (2021). Türkiye’nin Dünya Fuarı Deneyimi: Expo 2016 Antalya Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Journal of Humanities and Tourism Research, 11(2), 304-319.
• Karmowska, J. (2003). Cultural Heritage as an Element of Marketing Strategy in European Historic Cities. R. Kozlowski (Ed), Proceeding of the 5th Conference, Cultural Heritage Research: A Pan-European Challenge içinde (ss. 139-141). European Communities.
• Kavaratzis, M. (2004). From City Marketing to City Branding: Towards a Theoretical Framework for Developing City Brands. Place Branding, 1(1), 58–73. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.pb.5990005.
• Kim, K.S. (2011). Exploring Transportation Planning Issues During the Preparations for EXPO 2012 Yeosu Korea. Habitat International, 35(2), 286-294. doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2010.10.002.
• Kisusi, R.L. (2014). Promoting Public Awareness On The Existing Cultural Heritage Tourism Sites: A Case Of Dar Es Salaam City (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Arts In Tourısm Plannıng And Management Of The Open Unıversıty Of Tanzanıa, Dar es Salaam.
• Kokoro. (b.t.). Actroid-DER series. https://www.kokoro-dreams.co.jp/english/rt_tokutyu/actroid/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Kumar, V. (2021). Top 5 Countries Leading Robotics Implementation in 2021. https://www.analyticsinsight.net/top-5-countries-leading-robotics-implementation-in-2021/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Layerace. (2016). Mapa del Mundo Gris Vector Gratuito. https://www.freepik.es/vector-gratis/mapa-mundo-gris_893780.htm (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Lazar, A. (2016). Brazil's Political, Economic Turmoil Haunt Olympics. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/brazil-s-political-economic-turmoil-haunt-olympics-n585561 (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.a). A short history of EXPOs. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/past-EXPOs-a-short-history-of-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 04.07.2022).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.b). Since 1851. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/all-world-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.c). About World EXPOs. - https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/about-world-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.d). About Specialised EXPOs. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/about-specialised-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.e). Since 1936. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/all-specialised-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.f). About Horticultural EXPOs. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/about-horticultural-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.g). Since 1960. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/all-horticultural-EXPOs (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.h). About Triennale di Milano. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/about-triennale-di-milano (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.i). EXPO 1897 Brussels. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1897-brussels (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.i). Since 1933. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/all-triennale-di-milano (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.k). EXPO 1967 Montreal. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1967-montreal (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.l). EXPO 1851 London. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1851-london (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.m). EXPO 1878 Paris. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1878-paris (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.n). EXPO 1876 Philadelphia. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1876-philadelphia (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.o). EXPO 1933 Chicago. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1933-chicago (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Le Bureau International des Expositions [BIE]. (b.t.p). EXPO 1939 New York. https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/1939-new-york (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Lemoine, B. (2019). The Artists Who Protested the Eiffel Tower. https://www.toureiffel.paris/en/news/130-years/artists-who-protested-eiffel-tower (Erişim tarihi: 10.07.2022).
• Li, L. (2018). Urban Planning and Mega-Event Projects: Lessons from Expo 2010, Shanghai. Y. Ergen (Ed), An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning içinde (123-138). Londra: IntechOpen.
• Library of Congress. (b.t.). Futurama, of the City of 1960, Designed by Norman Bel Geddes for the General Motors Exhibit at the New York World's Fair in 1939. https://www.loc.gov/item/2012645722/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Lienhard, J.H. (b.t.). No. 69: Steam Engınes in England. https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi69.htm (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Lim, S.T. ve Lee, J.S. (2007). Host Population Perceptions of the Impact of Megaevents. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11(4), 407-421. doi: 10.1080/10941660600931259.
• Maçka Kalfa, S. ve Durmuş, S. (2016). Dünya Fuarlarında Ülke Pavyonlarının Mekânsal ve Yapısal İrdelenmesi. https://yapidergisi.com/dunya-fuarlarinda-ulke-pavyonlarinin-mekânsal-ve-yapisal-irdelenmesi/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Magno, F. ve Dossena, G. (2020). Pride of Being Part of a Host Community? Medium-term Effects of Megaevents on Citizen Quality of Life: The Case of the World Expo 2015 in Milan. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 15(100410), 1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100410.
• Malfas, M., Theodoraki, E. ve Houlihan, B. (2004). Impacts of the Olympic Games as Mega-events. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Municipal Engineer, 157 (ME3), 209–220. doi: 10.1680/muen.157.3.209.49461
• Malkin, E. (2018). 50 Years After a Student Massacre, Mexico Reflects on Democracy. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/world/americas/mexico-tlatelolco-massacre.html (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Marin-Aguilar, J.T. ve Vila-López, N. (2015). How Can Mega Events and Ecological Orientation Improve City Band Attitudes?. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 26(4), 629-652. doi: 10.1108/IJCHM-03-2013-0117.
• Mattern, S. (2016). Indexing the World of Tomorrow. https://placesjournal.org/article/indexing-the-world-of-tomorrow-1939-worlds-fair/?gclid=CjwKCAjwhuCKBhADEiwA1HegOfMnBXKQ0QAg2JQvP0WM0H1de03_gk5nVK_pj11Nwx-v4PkvweqaCBoCUAMQAvD_BwE&cn-reloaded=1 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• McBride, J. ve Manno, M. (2021). The Economics of Hosting the Olympic Games. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/economics-hosting-olympic-games (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Merrill, L. (2012). Exhibiting Race ‘Under the World's Huge Glass Case’: William and Ellen Craft and William Wells Brown at the Great Exhibition in Crystal Palace, London, 1851. Slavery & Abolition, 33(2), 321–336. doi:10.1080/0144039x.2012.669907.
• Mewes, D. ve Heloir, A. (2009). The Uncanny Valley. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.233.3469&rep=rep1&type=pdf (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Miesbcn. (b.t.). Pavilion. https://miesbcn.com/the-pavilion/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Mimarizm. (2013). Habitat 67: Geleceğin Yerleşimleri. https://www.mimarizm.com/makale/habitat-67-gelecegin-yerlesimleri_115430 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Moreno, B. (2004). The Statue of Liberty. Chicago: Arcadia Publishing.
• National Museum of American History. (b.t.). Alexander Graham Bell Experimental Telephone. https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_689864 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• NPR. (2008). Mexico's 1968 Massacre: What Really Happened? https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97546687 (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Olds, K. (1988). Planning For The Housing Impacts of A Hallmark Event: A Case Study of EXPO 86. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). The University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
• Onbay, E. (2020). 21. Yüzyıl Dünya Fuarlarında (Expo) Türkiye’nin Mimari Temsili. AURUM Mühendislik Sistemleri ve Mimarlık Dergisi, 4(1), 135-152.
• Paris Insiders Guide. (b.t.). Nine Highlights Of The Paris Universal Expositions – 1855 to 1937. https://www.parisinsidersguide.com/paris-universal-expositions.html (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Payne, S. (b.t.). 10 Architectural Wonders of Expo 2010 Shanghai. https://www.thecoolist.com/shanghai-expo-pavilions-the-ten-architectural-wonders/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Pinto, A.P.T., Brandão, B.A., Cayolla, C.I. ve Costa, D.J. (2020). Urban Transformations in The Aftermath of Lisbon’s Expo’98 The Polis Programme. Seminario Internacional de Investigaçao em Urbanismo, Sao Paulo.
• Polat, B. ve Tezcan, S. (2020). Expo’nun Kentsel Fonksiyonları Belirlemedeki Rolü Üzerine Bir Sağlık Kampüsü Önerisi. Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(2), 354-371. doi: 10.33905/bseusbed.779860.
• Reynolds, E. (2015). A dark Olympic legacy for Greece. https://www.news.com.au/sport/sports-life/a-dark-olympic-legacy-for-greece/news-story/8dcf6d1e8df9fe2e0f93ff12e74b1b72 (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Roche, M. (1994). Mega-Events and Urban Policy. Annab of Tourism Research, 21, 1-19. doi: 10.1016/0160-7383(94)90002-7.
• Rosenfield, K. (2015). UK and Wolfgang Buttress Win "Best Pavilion" at Milan Expo 2015. https://www.archdaily.com/776336/uk-and-wolfgang-buttress-win-best-pavilion-at-milan-expo-2015 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Sandy, M. (2016). Olympic Host State Faces Financial Crisis As Games Approach. https://time.com/4172821/rio-olympics-financial-crisis/ (Erişim tarihi: 03.10.2022).
• Schoenefeldt, H. (2016). Adapting Glasshouses for Human Use: Environmental Experimentation in Paxton’s Designs for the 1851 Great Exhibition Building and the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. Architectural History, 54, 233-273. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0066622X00004068.
• Silvestre, G. (2009). The Social Impacts of Mega-Events: Towards a Framework. Esportee Sociedade, 4(10), 1-26.
• Smith, C. (2006). The Plan of Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.
• Sovereign Hill Education. (2015). The Great Exhibition of 1851. https://sovereignhilledblog.com/2015/08/21/the-great-exhibition-of-1851/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Space Needle. (b.t.). A Seattle Icon. https://www.spaceneedle.com/about (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Sun, J. ve Ye, L. (2010). Mega-events, Local Economies, and Global Status: What Happened Before the 2008 Olympics in Beijing and the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 39(2), 133-165.
• Sustainable Development. (b.t.). Transforming Shanghai: World Expo 2010. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=99&nr=250&menu=1449 (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Taylor, A. (2013). The 1939 New York World's Fair. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/11/the-1939-new-york-worlds-fair/100620/ (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Teigland, J. (1999). Mega-events and Impacts on Tourism; The Predictions and Realities of the Lillehammer Olympics. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 17(4), 305-317. doi: 10.3152/147154699781767738.
• Terekli, M.S. ve Çobanoğlu, H.O. (2018). Mega Spor Organizasyonlarının Ekonomik Etkilerinin Türkiye Açısından Avantaj ve Dezavantajları. The Journal of Social Science, 2(3), 95-107. doi: 10.30520/tjsosci.429220.
• Timur, M.N., Çevik, S. ve Kıyık Kıcır, G. (2016). Destinasyon Marka Stratejisi Olarak Mega Etkinlikler: Eskişehir 2013 Türk Dünyası Kültür Başkenti Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 9(46), 1030-1044. doi: 10.17719/jisr.20164622665.
• Wang, H., Xiaokaiti, M., Zhou, Y., Yang, Y., Liu, Y. ve Zhao, R. (2012). Mega-events and City Branding: A Case Study of Shanghai World Expo 2010. Journal of US-China Public Administration, 9(11), 1283-1293.
• Witt, S.F. (1988). Conference Report Mega-events and Mega-attractions. Tourısm Management, 9(1), 76-77. doi: 10.1016/0261-5177(88)90063-5.
• Wood Cordulack, S. (2005). A Franco-American Battle of Beams: Electricity and the Selling of Modernity. Journal of Design History, 18(2), 147-166. doi: 10.1093/jdh/epi021.
• Woodman, C. (2020). Space Needle Reopens With High-Tech Coronavirus Protections. https://patch.com/washington/seattle/space-needle-reopens-coronavirus-protections (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Xue, K., Chen, X. ve Yu, M. (2012). Can the World Expo Change a City's Image Through Foreign Media Reports?. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 746-754. doi: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.06.013.
• Yijing, H. (2017). Shanghai 2010 World Expo Site to Become Massive Urban Park. http://chinaplus.cri.cn/news/china/9/20170423/3468.html (Erişim tarihi: 15.07.2021).
• Young, P. (2008). From the Eiffel Tower to the Javanese Dancer: Envisioning Cultural Globalization at the 1889 Paris Exhibition. The History Teacher, 41(3), 339–362. doi:10.2307/30036916.
• Yu, L., Wang, C. ve Seo, J. (2012). Mega Event and Destination Brand: 2010 Shanghai Expo. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 3(1), 46-65. doi: 10.1108/17582951211210933.