Böcekçil Beslenme ve Bazı Büyük Memeli Yaban Hayvanı Türlerinin Besin Tercihleri

Year 2020, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 160 - 170, 30.09.2020

Yasin Ünal , Dilek Arslan

https://doi.org/10.30516/bilgesci.787482

Cited By: 1

Abstract

Anadolu coğrafyasında yayılış gösteren memeli türlerin beslenme alışkanlıkları genel olarak etçil (carnivor), otçul (herbivor) ve hepçil/hem etçil hem otçul (omnivor) olmak üzere 3’e ayrılmaktadır. Böcekler, sahip oldukları yüksek protein dolayısıyla ekstrem hava şartları ve besin kıtlığında etçil ve hepçil memeli türü için alternatif bir besin ve enerji kaynağı olmakla birlikte, bazı zamanlarda hayatta kalabilmek için tek umut ve sonçare özelliğine sahiptir. Bu çalışmada 5 büyük memeli familyasına mensup 10 farklı türün besin tercihleri dışkı ve mide içeriği analizleri değerlendirilip besin grupları sınıflandırıldı. Böceklerin, ülkemizde yayılış gösteren önemli bazı büyük memeli türlerinin diyetindeki önemi değerlendirilmektedir.

Keywords

böcek, protein, beslenme, yaban hayvanları

Insectivorous Feeding And Nutritional Preferences Of Some Large Wild Mammalian Species

Abstract

The feeding habits of big mammalian species generally divided into three categories: carnivore, herbivore, and omnivore. Omnivorous and carnivorous species include insects in their food diets as well. Insects, due to the high protein they have, are an alternative food and energy source for carnivorous and omnivorous mammal species in extreme weather conditions and food shortage and sometimes have the feature of being the only hope and a last resort to survive for these species. In this study, the importance of insectivorous food preferences in the diet of 10 different species of 5 large mammal families in Turkey is evaluated by looking at the fecal and stomach content analyzes made in various regions of the world.

Keywords

protein diet, amino acid, insect, herbivore, omnivore, carnivore

References

• Adamkova, A., L. Kourimska, M.Borkovcova, M.Kulma ve J.Mlcek. (2016). Nutritional values of edible coleoptera (Tenebrio molitor, Zophobas morio and Alphitobius diaperinus) reared reared in the Czech Republic. Potravinarstvo, Agricultural University, 10, 663-671
• Bakaloudis, D. E., Vlachos, C. G., Papakosta, M. A., Bontzorlos, V. A., & Chatzinikos, E. N. (2012). Diet Composition and Feeding Strategies of the Stone Marten (Martes foina) in a Typical Mediterranean Ecosystem. The Scientific World Journal, 1–11.
• Ballitoc, D. A., and S. Sun. (2013). Ground yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) feed supplementation improves growth performance and carcass yield characteristics in broilers. Open Sci. Reposit. Agric. e23050425.
• Bojarska, K., & Selva, N. (2011). Spatial patterns in brown bear Ursus arctos diet: the role of geographical and environmental factors. Mammal Review, 42(2), 120–143.
• Bolen, E. G., & Robinson, W. L. (1999). Wildlife diseases. Wildlife Ecology and Management,, 113-141.
• Bouroș G. (2014). Feedıng Habıts Of The Eurasıan Otters Lutra Lutra, Lıvıng In Putna Vrancea Natural Park In The Eastern Carpathıans, Romanıa. Studia Universitatis Vasile Goldiş, Seria Ştiinţele Vieţii Vol. 24, issue 3, , pp.317-322
• Brainerd S.M. (1990). The pine marten and forest fragmentation: a review and general hypothesis. Pages 421-434 in: Myrberget, S. (Ed.) Transactions of the 19th International Congress of Game Biologists, Trondheim, Norway.
• Bratton S. P. (1975). The effect of the European wild boar, Sus scrofa, on Gray Beech Forest in the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecology, 56: 1356-1366
• Capinera JL. (2010). Insects and wildlife: arthropods and their relationships with wild vertebrate animals Insects and wildlife: arthropods and their relationships with wild vertebrate animals: i-viii, 1–487
• Cengiz G. (2013) Isparta-Gölcük tabiat parkı’nda domuz (sus scorofa l.) ve tavşan (lepus capensis l.) üzerine ekolojik gözlemler ve tür bolluk derecelerinin tespiti, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi fen bilimleri enstitüsü, Orman Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi
• Clavero, M., Prenda, J., & Delibes, M. (2003). Trophic diversity of the otter (Lutra lutra L.) in temperate and Mediterranean freshwater habitats. Journal of Biogeography, 30(5), 761–769. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00865.x
• Clevenger A. P.; Saugetierkunde Z. (1993). Pine marten (Maries martes Linne, 1758) comparative feeding ecology in an island and mainland population of Spain 58, 212-224
• Clevenger, A. P., Purroy, F. J., & Pelton, M. R. (1992). Food habits of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. Journal of Mammalogy, 73(2), 415-421.
• Coman, BJ. (1973). The diet of red foxes, Vulpes vulpes L., in Victoria. Australian Journal of Zoology, 21(3), 391.
• Croft, J. D., & Hone, L. J. (1978). The stomach contents of foxes, Vulpes vulpes, collected in New South Wales. Wildlife Research, 5(1), 85-92.
• Croft, J., & Hone, L. (1978). The Stomach Contents of Foxes, Vulpes Vulpes, Collected in New South Wales. Wildlife Research, 5(1), 85.
• Çanakçıoğlu H., Mol T. (1996). Yaban Hayvanları Bilgisi, İstanbul Üniv. Yayın no:3948. Fakülte Yayın no: 440: 438-441
• Dardaillon, M. (1987). Seasonal feeding habits of the wild boar in a Mediterranean wetland, the Camargue (Southern France). Acta Theriologica 32: 389–401.
• Dasmann, R, F. (1966). Wildlife Biology, John Willey & Sons Inc., New York–Sydney, USA, 231 s.
• Day, M.G. (1968). The food habits of British stoats (Mustela erminea) and weasels (Mustcla nivalis). J. Zool Lond., 148 : 201-217.
• De Marinis, AM and Masseti, M.(1995). Feeding habits of the Pine marten, Martes martes L., 1758, in Europe: A review. Hystrix, 7: 143–150.
• Demeter, A., and Spassov, N.(1993). Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758. In Handbuch der Saugetiere Europas. Edited by J. Niethammer and F. Krapp. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany. pp. 107–138.
• Demirsoy A. (1993), Yaşamın Temel Kuralları, Omurgalılar, Cilt 3, Kısım 2. Meteksan A.Ş. Ankara, 758
• Demir, İ., Nalçacıoğlu, R., Demirbağ, R. (2014). Böcek Virüslerinin Biyoteknolojik Önemi Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi, Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 2008, 14 (2) 193-201
• Develioğlu, O., Karadağ, R. (2011). Genel Bir Bakış: Doğal Boyarmaddeler, Marmara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 23(1) (2011) 21‐32.
• Dickman, C. R., & Huang, C. (1988). The Reliability of Fecal Analysis as a Method for Determining the Diet of Insectivorous Mammals. Journal of Mammalogy, 69(1), 108–113. doi:10.2307/1381753
• Erlinge, S. (1975). Feeding Habits of the Weasel Mustela nivalis in Relation to Prey Abundance. Oikos, 26(3), 378. doi:10.2307/3543510
• Fadeeva, T. (2016). Insectivorous mammals (Lipotyphla, Soricidae) of the Perm Pre-Ural in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene time. Quaternary International, 420, 156–170. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.074
• Ferguson SH, McLoughlin PD. (2000). Effect of energy availability, seasonality, and geographic range on brown bear life history. Ecography 23: 193–200.
• Fernández-Llano P., Carranza J. (1996). La abundancia del jabalí en Doñana y sus implicaciones en la conservación del ecosistema.
• Finke, M.D. (2008). Nutrient content of insects. In J.L. Capineira (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd Edition. Springer Netherlands. 2687-2710
• Finke, M.S. (2008). Nutrient content of insects . In Capinera , J.L. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Entomology , 2nd edn., pp. 2623 –2646. Springer Science & Business Media B.V., Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
• Fiona Mae C. (2008). Pine marten diet and habitat use within a managed coniferous forest. School of Biological & Environmental Sciences University of Stirling
• Fleming , T.H. (1991). Fruiting plant – frugivore mutualism: the evolutionary theater and the ecological play. Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., New York, USA, pp. 119 – 144
• Geisser, H. (2000). Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa) im Kanton Thurgau (Schweiz): Analyse der Populationsdynamik, der Habitatansprüche und der Feldschäden in einem anthropogen beeinflussten Lebensraum. Dissertation zur Erlangung der naturwissenschaftlichen Doktorwürde, Universität Zürich.
• Gende SM, Quinn TP. (2004). The relative importance of prey density and social dominance in determining energy intake by bears feeding on Pacific salmon. Canadian Journal of Zoology 82: 75–85.
• Georgıev D. (2013). Diet of the Stone marten (Martes foina Erxl.) in two large cities of the Upper Thracian Lowland, Southn Bulgaria , ZooNotes 42: 1-4
• Geptner, V.G., Naumov, N.P. (1967). Mammals of the Soviet Union in Russian. British Lending Library Division, Translation No. 6458Mlek, Sov. Soy., Moscow, 2, 636–686
• Gerard, J.F., Teillaud, P., Spitz, F., Mauget, R. & Campan, R. (1991). Les ongules sauvages de France: le sanglier. Revue d’Ecologie: la Terre et la Vie, Suppl. 6, 11–66.
• Gerard, J.F., Teillaud, P., Spitz, F., Mauget, R. & Dardaillon, M. (1986). Seasonal variations in habitat selection and spatial distribution of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in the Camargue, Southern France. Behavioural Processes, 13, 251–268
• Giannatos, G., Karypidou, A., Legakis, A., & Polymeni, R. (2010). Golden jackal (Canis aureus L.) diet in Southern Greece. Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift Für Säugetierkunde, 75(3), 227–232. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2009.03.003 Giménez-Anaya, A., Herrero, J., Rosell, C., Couto, S., & García-Serrano, A. (2008). Food habits of wild boars (Sus scrofa) in a Mediterranean coastal wetland. Wetlands, 28(1), 197-203.
• Gittleman J.L. (1985). Carnivore body size: ecological and taxonomic correlates. Oecologia 67: 540–554.
• Goszczyński, J. (1976). Composition of food of martens. Acta Theriologica, 21: 527–534.
• Goszczynski, J., Jedrzejewska, B., & Jedrzejewski, W., 2000. Diet composition of badgers (Meles meles) in a pristine forest and rural habitats of Poland compared to other European populations. Journal of Zoology, 250(4), 495–505.
• Grakov, N. N., (1962). The role of squirrel in pine marten diets in Northern Europe. Trudy Vsesoy uznogo Nauchno-Issledovatelskogo Instituta zhivotnogo syrya i pushniny 19: 154-163.
• Groot Bruinderink, G. W. T. A., Hazebroek, E., & Van Der Voot, H., (1994). Diet and condition of wild boar, Sus scrofu scrofu, without supplementary feeding. Journal of Zoology, 233(4), 631–648.
• Harna G., (1993). Diet composition of the otter Lutra lutra in the Bieszczady Mountains, south-east Poland. Acta Theriologica 38 (2): 167-174,
• Hartová-Nentvichova, M., Salek, M., Cerveny, J., & Koubek, P., (2010). Variation in the diet of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in mountain habitats: Effects of altitude and season. Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift Für Saugetierkunde, 75(4), 334–340. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2009.09.003
• Hartstone‐Rose, A., (2011). Reconstructing the diets of extinct South African carnivorans from premolar ‘intercuspid notch’morphology. Journal of Zoology, 285(2), 119-127.
• Herfindal, I., Linnell, J.D.C., Odden, J., Birkeland Nilsen, E. & Andersen, R., (2005). Prey density, environmental productivity and home-range size in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). - Journal of Zoology 265: 63-71
• Herrero, J., Irizar, I., Laskurain, N. A., García‐Serrano, A., & García‐González, R., (2005). Fruits and roots: Wild boar foods during the cold season in the southwestern Pyrenees. Italian Journal of Zoology, 72(1), 49–52. doi:10.1080/11250000509356652
• Hoffmann, M., & Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2016). Vulpes vulpes. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e. T23062A46190249. IUCN, http://dx. doi. org/10.2305/IUCN. UK, 1.
• Hussein, A. A. A., (2017). Mineral deposits. In The geology of Egypt. Routledge. pp. 511-566 Ingram M., Nabhan GC., Buchmaann SL., (1996). Impending pollination crisis threatens biodiversity and agriculture. Tropinet 7:1
• Iriarte A., Franklin W.L., Johnson W.E., Redford K.H., (1990). Biogeographic variation of food habits and body size of the American puma. Oecologia 85: 185–190.
• Jacob, J., (2013). Including insects in organic poultry diets.
• Jedrezejewska B, Sidorovich VE, Pikulik MM, Jedrezejewski W. (2001). Feeding habits of the Otter and the American Mink in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland) compared to other Eurasian populations. Ecography 24:165–180. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0587.2001.240207.x
• Jozefiak, D., Engberg, R. M., (2015). Insect as poultry feed. 20th European symposium on Poultry Nutrition, 24-27 August, Prague, Czech Republic.
• Kearney, J., (2010). Food consumption trends and drivers. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365, 2793–2807. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0149
• King CM., (1989). Carnivore behaviour, ecology and evolution. In: The advantages and disadvantages of small size to weasels, Mustela species. New York: Cornell University; p. 302–334.
• Kotanen P. M., (1995). Responses of vegetation to changing regime of disturbance: effects of feral pigs in a Californian coastal prairie. Ecography, 18: 190-199.
• Kruuk H, Carss DN., (1996). Costs and benefits of fishing by semi-aquatic carnivore, the otter Lutra lutra. In: Greenstreet SPR, Tasker ML (eds) Aquatic Predators and their Prey. Fishing, Oxford, pp 10–16
• Lacki M. J., Lancia R. A., (1986). Effects of wild pigs on beech growth in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. J. Wildl. Manage, 50: 655-659
• Lamprecht J., (1978). On diet, foraging behaviour and interspecific food competition of jackals in the Serengeti National Park, East Africa. Z. Säugetierkd. 43: 210–223
• Lanszki J, Heltai M. (2007). Diet of the weasel in Hungary. Folia Zoologica. 56:109–112.
• Libois, R and Waetcher, A., (1991). La fouine (Martes foina Erxleben, 1777). Encyclopédie des Carnivores de France. Soc, Francaise pour l'Etude et la Protection des Mammifères.
• Lindstrom E.R., (1989). The role of medium-sized carnivores in the Nordic boreal forest. Finn Game Res 46:53–63
• Lindstrom E.R., Andre´n H., Angelstam P., Cederlund G., Hornfeldt B., Joderberg L., Lemnell P-A., Martinsson B., Skold K., Swenson JE., (1994). Disease reveals the predator: sarcoptic mange, red fox predation, and prey populations. Ecology 75(4):1042–1049
• Lindstrom E.R., Brainerd S.M., Helldin J.O., Overskaug K., (1995). Pine marten—red fox interactions: a case of intraguild predation. Ann Zool Fenn 32:123–130
• Linnell, J.D.C., Andersen, R., Kvam, T., Andren, H., Liberg, O., Odden, J. & Moa, P.F., (2001). Home range size and choice of management strategy for lynx in Scandinavia. Environmental Management 27: 869-879
• Lobachev, Y.S., (1976). Ecology of the badger in the mountains of southcastern Kazakstan. Biulfeten Moscovoskogo Obchestm Xqytatelei Prir&. &ria Bioiogi, 81.71-91.
• Lunney, D., Triggs, B., Eby, P. ve Ashby, E., (1990). Analysis of Scats of Dogs Canis familiaris and Foxes Vulpes vulpes (Canidae: Carnivora) in Coastal Forests Near Bega, New South Wales, Aust. Wildl. Res., 1990, 17, 61-8
• Macdonald D.W., (1983). The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature 301: 379–383.
• Marches P., Lachat, N., Lienhar d, R., Debieve, Ph. & Mermod, (1989). Comparaison des regimes alimen taires de la fuine (Martes foina Erxl.) et de la martre (Martes martes L.) dans une region du Jura suisse. Rev. Suisse Zool. 96: 281-296
• Marchesi, P., & Mermod, C., (1989). Regime alimentaire de la marte (Martes martes) dans de Jura Suisse (Mammalia: Mustelidae). Rev. Suisse Zool. 96: 127-146
• Marchesi, P., (1989). Ecologie et comportement de la martre (Martes martes L.) Dans le Jura Suisse. Ph.D. thesis. Universite de Neuchatel.BOUROŞ, G. (2014). Status of the European Otter (Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758) in Romania. Romanıan Journal Of Bıology1 Margalef R., (1974). Ecología. Omega, Barcelona
• Markov, G., & Lanszki, J., (2012). Diet composition of the golden jackal, Canis aureus in an agricultural environment. Folia Zoologica, 61(1), 44–48. doi:10.25225/fozo.v61.i1.a7.2012
• Marone, L., Rossi, B. E., & Lopez de Casenave, J., (1998). Granivore impact on soil‐seed reserves in the central Monte desert, Argentina. Functional Ecology, 12(4), 640-645.
• Massei, G., Genov, P. V., & Staines, B. W., (1996). Diet, food availability and reproduction of wild boar in a Mediterranean coastal area. Acta Theriologica, 41, 307-320.
• Matthews WJ., (1998). Patterns in freshwater fish ecology. International Thomson Publishing, Chapman and Hall, New York
• McDonald, R. A., Webbon, C., & Harris, S., (2000). The diet of stoats (Mustela erminea) and weasels (Mustela nivalis) in Great Britain. Journal of Zoology, 252(3), 363–371. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00631.x
• Moehlman, P.D., (1983). Socioecology of silverbacked and golden jackals (Canis mesomelas and Canis aureus). Pp. 423–453
• Molinari-Jobin, A., Zimmermann, F., Ryser, A., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Capt, S., Breitenmoser, U., Eyholzer, R., 2007. Variation in diet, prey selectivity and home-range size of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in Switzerland. Wildlife Biology, 13(4), 393–405. doi:10.2981/0909-6396(2007)13[393:vidpsa]2.0.co;2
• Moors, P. J., (1977). Studies of the metabolism, food consumption and assimilation efficiency of a small carnivore, the weasel (Mustela nivalis L.). Oecologia, 27(3), 185–202. doi:10.1007/bf00347466
• Moreki, J.C., Tiroesele B., and Chiripasi, S.C., 2012. Prospects of utilizing insects as alternative sources of protein in poultry diets in Botswana: A Review. Journal of Animal Science Advance, 2(8): 649-658.
• Mowat, G., Heard, D. C., Seip, D. R., Poole, K. G., Stenhouse, G., & Paetkau, D. W., (2005). Grizzly Ursus arctos and black bear U. americanus densities in the interior mountains of North America. Wildlife Biology, 11(1), 31-48.
• Oğurlu I., Süzek H., (1997). Ağaç Sansarı (Martes martes (L.)’nin Habitat Seçimi ve Beslenme Rejimi Üzerine Bir Araştırma Tr. J . of Zoology 21, 63-68
• Oğurlu, I., Süel, H., Ünal, Y., Ertuğrul, E. T., (2011). Importance and position of herbal non-wood forest products on the diet of the wild animals. 2nd International Non-Wood Products Symposium, 8-10 September 2011, Isparta / Turkey, s.78.
• Özen A. S. , Uluçay İ., (2010). Kütahya İli Meles Meles Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalıa: Carnıvora)’İn Bazı Ekolojik, Biyolojik ve Taksonomik Özellikleri, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi Issue 21, p9-20. 12p.
• Palomero G., Fernandez A., Naves J., (1997). Reproductive rates of brown bears in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. International Conference for Bear Research and Management 9: 129–132.
• Paralikidis, N.P., Papageorgiou, N.K., Kontsiotis, V. J., & Tsiompanoudis, A.C. (2010). The dietary habits of the Brown bear (Ursus arctos) in western Greece. Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift Für Saugetierkunde, 75(1), 29–35.
• Parovshchikov VY., (1975). A contribution to the ecology of Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766 of the Arkhangel'sk North. In: Biology of mustelids: some Soviet research. Wetherby (UK): British Library Lending Division; p. 84–97.
• Persson, I. L., Wikan, S., Swenson, J. E., & Mysterud, I., (2001). The diet of the brown bear Ursus arctos in the Pasvik Valley, northeastern Norway. Wildlife Biology, 7(3), 27-37.
• Pigozzi, G., (1991). The diet of the European badger in a Mediterranean coastal area Acta 13 reriologica, 36, 293-306.
• Pineda-Munoz, S., & Alroy, J., (2014). Dietary characterization of terrestrial mammals, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 281(1789), 20141173–20141173.
• Posłuszny, M., Pilot, M., Goszczyński, J., & Gralak, B., (2007). Diet of sympatric pine marten (Martes martes) and stone marten (Martes foina) identified by genotyping of DNA from faeces. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 44(4), 269-284. Retrieved February 11, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/23736771
• Price, P. W., (1997). Insect Ecology 3rd edition, Wiley, New York
• Puspitasari, S., (2016). Biogeography and ecology of beetles in a tropical archipelago: A case study from Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park, PhD Thesis, University College London, Department of Geography, University College London
• Putman, R. J. (1984). Facts from faeces. — Mamm. Rev. 14: 79–97.
• Rajchev, E., (2002). Diet, morphology and parasitological status of red fox (Vulpes vulpes), golden jackal (Canis aureus), wild cat (Felis silvestris) and stone marten (Martes foina) in Central Balkan and Sredna gora Mountains. PhD dissertation, Thracian University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. 151 pp
• Reynolds, J. C., & Aebıscher, N. J., (1991). Comparison and quantification of carnivore diet by faecal analysis: a critique, with recommendations, based on a study of the Fox Vulpes vulpes. Mammal Review, 21(3), 97–122. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.1991.tb00113.x
• Roper, T. J., & Mıckevıcıus, E., (1995). Badger Meles meles diet: a review of literature from the former Soviet Union. Mammal Review, 25(3), 117–129.
• Ruiz-Olmo J, López-Martín JM, Palazón S., (2001).The influence of fish abundance on the otter (Lutra lutra) populations in Iberian Mediterranean habitats. J Zool (Lond) 254:325–336. doi:10.1017/S0952836901000838
• Rumpold B.A., and O.K.Schlüter, (2013). Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 17: 1-11
• Sabuncuoğlu K. M., Korkmaz Turgud F., Şamlı H. E., (2018). Bazı Böcek Türlerinin Yemlerde Kullanım Olanakları. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 15(2), 73 - 77
• Schley, L., & Roper, T. J., (2003). Diet of wild boar Sus scrofa in Western Europe, with particular reference to consumption of agricultural crops. Mammal review, 33(1), 43-56
• Silvius, K. M., (2002). Spatio-temporal patterns of palm endocarp use by three Amazonian forest mammals: granivory or ‘grubivory’?. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 18(5), 707-723.
• Skoog, P., (1970). The food of the Swedish badger, Meles meles L. Viltrevy, 7, 1-120.
• Smith, R.L. & Smith, T.M., (2000). Elements of ecology, 4th edn. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., San Francisco.
• Stenset, N. E., Lutnæs, P. N., Bjarnadóttir, V., Dahle, B., Fossum, K. H., Jigsved, P., Swenson, J. E., (2016). Seasonal and annual variation in the diet of brown bears Ursus arctos in the boreal forest of southcentral Sweden. Wildlife Biology, 22(3), 107–116. doi:10.2981/wlb.00194
• Stork, N. E., (2018). How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth? Annual Review of Entomology, 63(1), 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348
• Stoyanov, S., (2012). Golden Jackal (Canıs aureus) In Bulgarıa. Current Status, Dıstrıbutıon, Demography And Dıet. International symposium on hunting, Мodern aspects of sustainable management of game population Zemun-Belgrade, Serbia, 22. – 24
• Stringham SF., (1986). Effects of climate, dump closure, and other factors on Yellowstone grizzly bear litter size. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 6: 33–39.
• Stringham SF., (1990). Grizzly bear reproductive rate relative to body size. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 8: 433–443.
• Sun, T., Long, R.J., Liu, Z.Y., Ding, W.R. and Zhang, Y., (2012). Aspects of lipid oxidation of meat from free-range broilers consuming a diet containing grasshoppers on Alpine steppe of the Tibetan lateau. Poultry Science, 91(1):224-231
• Sunquist, M.E. & Sunquist, F.C. (1989). Ecological Constraints on Predation by Large Felids. - In: Gittleman, J.L. (Ed.); Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 283-301.
• Swenson JE., Jansson A., Rigg R., Sandegren F., (1999). Bears and ants: myrmecophagy by brown bears in central Scandinavia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77: 551–561.
• Tekeli, A., (2014). Hayvan Beslemede Alternatif Protein Kaynağı Olarak Böceklerin Kullanımı, Türk Tarım ve Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi 1(4): 531–538, 2014
• Ulutürk S., Yürümez G., (2017). New records of Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758 from Turkey. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Art,Batman University,Batman, Turkey. December, 2017; 1 (1): 21-24
• Van Huis, A.V., (2013). Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual Review of Entomology,58: 563-583.
• Van Wieren, S.E., (1996). Digestive strategies in ruminants and nonruminants. PhD Thesis, Wageningen
• Vulla, E. et al., (2009). Carnivory is positively correlated with latitude among omnivorous mammals: evidence from brown bears, badgers and pine martens. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 46: 395–415.
• Wang, D., Zhai, S.W., Zhang, C.X., Bai, Y.Y., An, S.H. and Xu, Y.N., (2005). Evaluation on nutritional value of field crickets as a poultry feedstuff. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science, 18(5): 667-670
• Weber J.M., and Weıssbrodt M., (1999). Feeding habits of the Eurasian lynx in the Swiss Jura Mountains determined by faecal analysis. Acta Theriologica 44 (3): 333-336,
• Weckwerth, R.P. & Hawley, V.D., (1962). Marten food habits and population fluctuations in Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management., 26: 55-74.
• Weckwerth,, A. P., Purroy, F. J., & Pelton, M. R., (1992). Food Habits of Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. Journal of Mammalogy, 73(2), 415–421
• Welch CA., Keay J., Kendall K.C, Robbins C., (1997). Constraints on frugivory by bears. Ecology 78: 1105–1119.
• Wlaze k, M. & Abudzki, L., (1992). Über die Nahrungskomponenten und die trophische Stellung des Schwarzwildes im Forschungsgebiet Zielonka. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft, 38, 81–87.
• Yiğit, N., Çolak, E., Özkurt, Ş, (2005). Sürdürülebilir Avcılık için Temel Eğitim Kitabı 1.Cilt, T.C. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, Eğitim yayınları-1, Ankara,111-133
• Yudin, B.S., (1989). Insectivorous Mammals of Siberia. Nauka Publ, Novosibirsk, p. 360 (in Russian).
• Zaitsev, M.V., Osipova, V.A., (2004). Insectivorous mammals (Insectivora) of the Late Pleistocene in the Northern Caucasus. Zoologicheskiy zhunal 83 (7), 851e868 (in Russian).
• Zalewski, A., (2004). Geographical and seasonal variation in food habits and prey size of European pine martens. In Martens and fishers (Martes) in human-altered environments, Edited by: Harrison, DJ, Fuller, AK and Proulx, G. 77–98. London, , UK: Springer.
• Zhou, Y-B, Newman, C, Xu, W-T, Buesching, CD, Zalewski, A, Kaneko, Y, Macdonald, DW and Xie, Z-Q., (2010). Biogeographical variation in the diet of Holarctic martens (genus Martes, Mammalia: Carnivora: Mustelidae): Adaptive foraging in generalists. Journal of Biogeography, 38: 137–147