THE LATE QUATERNARY TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE LAKE VAN, TURKEY

Year 2015, Volume: 151 Issue: 151, 1 - 46, 19.12.2015

Naci Görür M. Çağatay Cengiz Zabcı , Mehmet Sakınç Remzi Akkök Hande Şile Sefer Örçen

https://doi.org/10.19111/bmre.75031

Cited By: 3

Abstract

Many of the terraces around the Lake Van record a relatively short period of the much lon- ger geological history of the Lake Van Basin. Their deposition took place during the last ca. 125 ka BP. They accumulated in a large array of shallow lake and lake margin environments, such as alluvial fan/braided river, beach, Gilbert-type delta, nearshore lake and offshore la- ke. Variability of their lithofacies provides evidence for climatic and tectonic controls of the- ir depositional conditions. During their deposition high relief areas in the watershed delive- red abundant detritus to the coastal areas of the lake. The sedimentation was therefore domi- nated by terrigenous clastic deposits. The highest concentrations  of the coarse clastic sedi- ments were at the mouths of the major streams where they formed Gilbert-type deltas. The- se river-dominated lacustrine deltas formed during rising lake levels and are relatively more abundant and thicker in the eastern margin of the lake, indicating that this margin mostly had a low-energy coast sheltered from the prevailing westerly winds. However, some areas of the same margin adjacent to deltas were also supplied with sediments by waves and storm-indu- ced longshore currents to form beaches. Storms and storm-generated  traction currents were perhaps active agents along the shores of the Lake Paleo-Van as suggested by the presence of the coarse-grained material in its nearshore facies. Somehow, during times of lake high- stands, turbidity currents seem not to have played an important role in the sediment transpor- tation along the lake margin, because the nearshore sediments hardly show any evidence of turbidite depositon, such as graded bedding and sole-marks. The offshore lake was relatively quite standing water, depositing laterally persistent, thinly-bedded to varved and fine-grained sandstones and mudstones in part with hydroplastic disruptions, such as slumps and convo- lute beddings. Because of the lack of sufficient datings of the terrace sequences around La- ke Van, we cannot correlate them unequivocally. However, the absence of large-scale cycli- city within a given terrace sequence in each locality suggests that deposition of each terrace occurred during a separate lake level fluctuation each reaching to higher level than the mo- dern lake level followed by a regression. The available age data suggest that high lake levels, reaching up to 1760 m asl, occurred during the last interglacial (MIS 5; 123-71 ka BP), 26- 24 ka BP, 22-21 ka BP and 10-6 ka BP. The younging of the terrace deposits along with the decrease in elevation suggests either a gradual decline of lake level with time, or the effect of the cumulative uplift with time or both. The fluctuating lake level was probably due to a combination of climatic, volcanic and tectonic processes. Considering the hydrologically clo- sed nature of the lake, climate probably played more important role than the others. Since the formation of the youngest terrace sediments of 6 ka BP, perhaps the climate in the basin has been mostly relatively more arid and evaporative. During the entire history of the lake (last 600 ka), geology of the area has been characterized by the neotectonic régime of Turkey with active dip- and strike-slip faults, resulting in the offshore lake the characteristic slump struc- tures and convolute beddings, and eruptions of mainly the Nemrut Volcano.

Keywords

Lake Van, TectonoStratigraphy, Lake Level Fluctuations, Climate

References

• Akyüz, H. S., Zabcı, C., Sançar, T. 2011. Preliminary report on the 23 October 2011 Van earthquake, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
• Allen, J. R. L. 1984. Developments in Sedimentology, Sedimentary Structures. Elsevier, 663 p.
• Ambraseys, N. N. 1988. Engineering seismology. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 17, 1-105.
• Blair, T. C., Mc Pherson, J. G. 1994. Alluvial fans and their natural distinction from rivers based on morphology, hydraulic processes, sedimentary processes and facies assemblages. Journal of Sedimentary Research 64, 450-589.
• Blockley, S.P.E., Lane, C.S., Hardiman, M., Rasmussen, S.O., Seierstad, I.K., Steffensen, J.P., Svensson, A., Lotter, A.F., Turney, C.S.M., Ramsey, C.B., INTIMATE members. 2012. Synchronisation of palaeoenvironmental records over the last 60,000 years, and an extended INTIMATE1 event stratigraphy to 48,000 b2k. Quaternary Science Reviews 36, 1-222.
• Bluck, B. J. 1967. Deposition of some Upper Old Red Sandstone conglomerate in the Clyde area: a study in the significance of bedding. Scot. J. Geol. 3, 139-167.
• Bull, W. B. 1972. Recognation of Alluvial-Fan Deposits in the Stratigraphic Record. (Rigby, J. K., Hamblin, W. K. (Ed.). Recognation of Ancient Sedimentary Environments. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. Special Publication 16, 63-83.
• Carryer, S. J. 1966. A note on the formation of alluvial fans..New Zealand Jour. Geology and Geophysics 9, 91-94.
• Chapron, E., Ariztegui, D., Mulsow, S., Villarosa, G., Pino, M., Outes, V., Juvignie, E., Crivelli, E. 2006. Impact of the 1960 major subduction earthquake in Northern Patagonia (Chile, Argentina). Quaternary International. 158, 58-71.
• Clifton, H. E. 1973. Marine-nonmarine facies change in middle Miocene rocks, southeastern Caliente Range, California; in Sedimentary facies changes in Tertiary rocks- California Ti’ansverse and southern Coast Ranges. Annual Meeting AAPG- SEPM-SEG., 55-57.
• Çağatay, M.N., Öğretmen, N., Damcı, E., Stockhecke, M., Sancar, Ü., Eriş, K.K., Özeren, S., 2014. Lake level and climate records of the last 90 ka from the Northern Basin of Lake Van, eastern Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 104, 97-116.
• Çukur, D., Krastel, S., Demirel-Schülter, F., Demirbağ, E., İmren, C., Niessen, F., Toker, M., PaleoVan- Working Group 2013. Sedimentary evolution of Lake Van (Eastern Turkey) reconstructed from high-resolution seismic investigations. International Journal of Earth Sciences (Geol. Rundsch.) 102 (2), 571-585.
• Çukur, D., Krastel, S., Schmincke, H-U, Sumita, M., Winkelmann, D., Çağatay, M.N., Meydan, A.F., Damcı, E., Stockhecke, M. 2014. Seismic stratigraphic evolution of the Lake Van, eastern Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 104, 63-84.
• Damcı, E., Çağatay M. N., Krastel, S, Öğretmen, N., Çukur, D., Ülgen, U.B., Erdem, Litt, T., Anselmetti F.S. Eriş,K.K., ICDP PaleoVan Scientific Party. 2012. Lake level changes of Lake Van over the Last 400 ka: Evidence from Deltas in Seismic Reflection Data and ICDP Drilling. European Geosciences Union (EGU) General Assembly, 22-27 April 2012, Vienna, 626.
• Danulat, E., Selçuk, B. 1992. Life history and environmental conditions of the anadromous Chalcalburnus tarichi (Cyprinidae) endemic to the extremely alkaline Lake Van, Eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Arch. Hydrobiol. 126: 105-125.
• Davidson Arnott, R. G. D., Greenwood, B. 1976. Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation. Davis, R. A., Ethington, R. L. (Ed.). Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Special Publication 24, 149-168.
• Degens, e.t., Kurtman, F. 1978. The geology of Lake Van. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü Press, 158p.
• Degens, E.T., Wong, H.K., Kempe, S., Kurtman, F. 1978. A Van Gölü’nün Jeolojik Gelişimi: Bir Özet. Degens, E.T., Kurtman, F. (Ed.). The Geology of Lake Van. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü, 147-158.
• Degens, E.T., Wong, H.K., Kempe, S., Kurtman, F. 1984. A Geological study of Lake Van, Eastern Turkey. Geologische Rundschau 73, 701-734.
• Doğan, B., Karakaş, A. 2013. Geometry of co-seismic surface ruptures and tectonic meaning of 2011 Mw 7.1 Van earthquake (East Anatolian Region, Turkey). Journal of Structural Geology 46, 99- 114.
• Dorsey, R. J., Umhoefer, P. J., Renne, P. R. 1995. Rapid subsidence and stacked Gilbert-type fan deltas, Pliocene Loreto basin, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Sedimentary Geology. 98, 181-204.
• Dunne, L. A., Hempton, M. R. 1984. Deltaic sedimentation in the Lake Hazar pull-apart basin, south-eastern Turkey, Sedimentology 31, 401-412.
• Ekström, G., Nettles, M., Dziewoƒski, A.M., 2012. The global CMT project 2004–2010: Centroid-moment tensors for 13,017 earthquakes. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 200–201, 1-9.
• Emre, Ö., Duman, T.Y., Özalp, S., Elmacı, H., Olgun, Ş., Şaroğlu, F., 2013. Açıklamalı Türkiye Diri Fay Haritası Ölçek 1:1250000 (Active Fault Map of Turkey with an Explanatory Text 1:1250000 scale), 89 pp., Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara.
• Erdik, M., Kamer, Y., Demircioğlu, M., Şeşetyan, K. 2012. 23 October 2011 Van (Turkey) earthquake. Natural Hazard 64, 651-665.
• Ergin, K., Güçlü, U., Uz, Z. 1967. Türkiye ve civarının deprem kataloğu (A Catalof of earthquakes for Turkey and surrounding area), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Maden Fakültesi Ofset Baskı Atölyesi, İstanbul
• Erinç, S. 1953. Doğu Anadolu Coğrafyası. İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul.
• Falk, P. D., Dorsey, R. J. 1998. Rapid development of gravelly high-density turbidity currents in marine Gilbert-type fan deltas, Loreto Basin, Baja California Sur, Mexico. 45, 331-349.
• Fielding, E. J., Lundgren, P. R., Taymaz, T., Yolsal, Çevikbilen, S., Owen, S. E. 2013, Fault-slip source models for the M 7.1 Van Earthquake in Turkey from SAR Interferometry, pixel offset tracking, GPS and seismic waveform analysis, Seismological Research Letters 84 (4), 579-593.
• Gessner, F. 1957. Van Gölü, zor Limnologie des grossen Soda Sees in Ostanatolien (Türkei). Arch. Hydrobiol. 53, 1-22.
• Gloppen, T. G., Steel, R. J. 1981. The deposits, internal structure and geometry of six alluvial fan – fan- delta bodies (Devonian, Norway) – a study in the significance f bedding sequences in conglomerates. In: F. G: Ethridge (Ed.) Non- Marine deposits – Models for Exploration. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., Spec. Publi. 31, 49-69.
• Görür, N. 1992. A tectonically controlled alluvial fan which developed into a marine fan-delta at a complex triple junction: Miocene Gildirli Formation of the Adana Basin, Turkey. Sedimentary Geology. 81, 243-252.
• Güner, Y. 1984. Nemrut yanardağının jeolojisi, jeomorfolojisi ve volkanizmasının evrimi, Jeomorfoloji Dergisi 12, 23-65.
• Harvey, A. M., Mather, A. E., Strokes, M. 2005. Alluvial fans: geomorphology, sedimentology, dynamics – introduction. A review of alluvial-fan research in Harvey, A. M., Mather, A. E., Stokes, M. (Eds) Alluvial Fans Geomorphology, Sedimentology, Dynamics, Geological Society Special Publication 251, 1-7
• Hayes, M. O. 1967. Hurricanes as geological agents, south Texas coast. Bulletein American Association of Petroleum Geologists 51, 937-942.
• Heward, A. P., 1978. Alluvial fan and lacustrine sediments from the Stephanian A and B (La Magdalenai Cinera-Matallana and Sabero) coalfields, northern Spain. Sedimentology 25, 451-488.
• Horasan, G., Boztepe-Güney, A. 2007. Observation and Analysis of Low-Frequency Crustal Earthquakes In Lake Van and its Vicinity, Eastern Turkey. Journal of Seismology 11, 1-13.
• Howard, J. D. 1967. Georgia coastal region, Sapelo Island, U.S.A. Sedimentology and biology. VIII. Conclusions. Senckenbergiana Marit 4, 217-222.
• Johnson, A. M. 1970. Physical processes in geology: San Francisco. Freeman. Cooper and Company, 577 p.
• Kaden, H., Peeters, F., Lorke, A., Kipfer, R., Breenwald, M., Tomonaga, Y. 2005. Mixing processes in Lake Van (Turkey). 9th European Workshop on Physical Processes in Natural Waters (extended abstract). Lancaster, UK.
• Kaden, H., Peeters, F., Lorke, A., Kipfer, R., Tomonaga, Y., Karabıyıkoğlu, M. 2010. Impact of lake level change on deep-water renewal and oxic conditions in deep saline Lake Van, Turkey. Water Resources Research 46, W11508.
• Kadıoğlu, M., Sen, Z., Batur, E. 1997a. The greatest soda- water lake in the world and how it is influenced by climatic change. Ann. Geophysicae 15, 1489-1497.
• Kadıoğlu, M., Sen, Z., Batur, E. 1997b. The greatest soda- water lake in the world and how it is influenced by climatic change. Ann. Geophysicae 15, 1489-1497.
• Kempe, S. 1977. Warvenchronologie und organische Geochemie des Van Sees, Ostrrürkei, Ph.D. thesis, Mitt. Geol. Palaeontol. Inst. Univ. Hamburg.
• Kempe, S., Degens, E.T. 1978. Lake Van varve record: the past 10.420 years. Degens, E.T., Kurtman, F. (Ed.). Geology of Lake Van. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Ankara, 56-63.
• Kempe, S., Kazimierczak, J., Landmann, G., Konuk, T., Reimer, A., Lipp, A. 1991. Largest known microbialities discovered in Lake Van, Turkey. Nature 349, 605-608.
• Kempe, S., Landmann, G., Müller, G. 2002. A floating varve chronology from the last glacial maximum terrace of Lake Van/Turkey. Research in deserts and mountains of Africa and Central Asia 126, 97–114.
• Ketin, İ. 1977. Van Gölü ile İran sınırı arasındaki bölgede yapılan jeoloji gözlemlerinin sonuçları hakkında kısa bir açıklama. TJK Bült. 20, 79-85.
• Kumar, N., Sanders, J. E. 1976. Characteristics of shoreface storm deposits: modern and ancient examples, J. Sediment. Petrol. 46, 145-162.
• Kuzucuoğlu, C., Christol, L., Mouralis, D., Doğu, A.F., Akköprü, E., Fort, M., Brunsteın, D., Zorer, H., Fontugne, M., Karabıyıkoğlu, M. 2010. Formation of the Upper Pleistocene terraces of lake Van (Turkey). Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 1124–1137.
• Kwiecien O, Stockhecke, M., Pickarski, N., Litt, T., Sturm, M., Anselmetti, F., Haug, G. 2014. Dynamics of the last four glacial terminations recorded in Lake Van, Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 104, 42-52.
• Landmann, G. 1996. Van See/Türkei: Sedimentologie, Warvenchronologie und regionale Klimaent- wicklung der letzten 15.000 Jahre. Doktora Tezi, Hamburg Üniversitesi (unpublished).
• Landmann, G., Reimer, A. ve Kempe, S. 1996a.
• Climatically induced lake level changes at Lake Van, Turkey, during the Pleistocene / Holocene transition. Global Biochemical Cycles 10, 797-808.
• Landmann, G., Reimer, A., Lemcke, G., Kempe, S. 1996b. Dating Late Glacial abrupt climate changes in the 14.570 yr long continuous varve record of Lake Van, Turkey. Palaeogeography, Palaeo- climatology, Palaeoecology 122, 107-118.
• Landmann, G., Kempe, S. 2005. Annual deposition signal versus lake dynamics: Microprobe analysis of Lake Van (Turkey) sediments reveals missing varves in the period 11.2–10.2 ka BP. Facies 51, 143-153.
• Landmann, G., Steinhauser, G., Sterba, J.H., Kempe, S., Bichler, M. 2011. Geochemical fingerprints by activation analysis of tephra layers in LakeVan sediments, Turkey. Applied Radiation and Isotopes 69, 929–935.
• Lewis, D. W. 1980. Storm-generated graded beds and debris flow deposits with Ophiomorpha in a shallow offshore Oligocene sequence at Nelson, South Island, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys. 23, 353-369.
• Litt, T., Krastel, S., Sturm, M., Kipfer, R., Oercen, S., Heumann, G., Franz, S. O., Ulgen, U. B., Niessen, F. 2009. ‘PALEOVAN’, International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP): site survey results and perspectives. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1555-1567.
• -
• Litt, T., Anselmetti, F.S., Baumgarten, H., Beer, J., Çağatay, N., Cukur, D., Damci, E., Glombitza, C., Haug, G., Heumann, G., Kallmeyer, J., Kipfer, R., Krastel, S., Kwiecien, O., Meydan, A.F., Orcen, S., Pickarski, N., Randlett, M., Schmincke, H., Schubert, C.J. Sturm, M., Sumita, M., Stockhecke M.,, Tomonaga, Y., Vigliotti, L., Wonik, T. 2012. The PALEOVAN Scientific Team, 500,000 Years of Environmental History in Eastern Anatolia: The PALEOVAN Drilling Project. Sciencetific Drilling 14, 18.
• Litt, T. Pickarski, N., Heumann, G. 2014. A 600,000 Year Long Continental Pollen Record from Lake Van, Eastern Anatolia (Turkey). Quaternary Science Reviews.
• López-García, P., Kazmierczak J., Benzerara, K., Kempe, S., Guyot, F., Moreira, D. 2005. Bacterial diversity and carbonate precipitation in the giant microbialites from the highly alkaline Lake Van, Turkey. Extremophiles 9, 263-274.
• Lowe, D.R. 1979. Sediment gravity flows: Their classification and some problems of aplication to natural flows and deposits, in Doyle, L. J., Pilkey, O. H. (Eds.) Geology of continental slopes: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogits Special Publication 27, 75-82.
• Lowe, D. R. 1982. Sediment gravity flows II: depositional models with special reference to the deposits of high density turbidity currents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 52, 279-297.
• Mc Calpin, J. P., Nelson, A. R. 1996. Introduction to Paleoseismology in McCalpin, J. P. (Ed.) Paleoseismology, Academic Press, New York, pp.
• -32
• McConnico, T.S., Bassett, K.N. 2003. Quaternary Gilbert- style fan deltas and Podocarp forests along the
• modern transpressional Hope fault, New Zealand. Geological Society of America 35, 510.
• McConnico, T. S., Bassett, K. N. 2007. Gravelly Gilbert- type fan delta on the Conway Coast, New Zealand: Foreset depositional processes and clast imbrications. Sedimentary Geology 198, 147-166.
• Moretti, M., Pieri, P., Tropeano, M. 2002. Late Pleistocene soft-sediment deformation structures interpreted as seismites in paralic deposits in the city of Bari (Apulian forelan, southern Italy). Geological Society of America, Special Paper 359.
• Mouralis D., Kuzucuoğlu C., Scaillet S., Doğu A-F., Christol A., Akköprü E., Fontugne M., Zorer H., Guillou H. 2010. Les pyroclastites du sud-ouest du lac de Van (Anatolie orientale, Turquie): implications sur la paléo-hydrographie régionale. Quaternaire 21, 417-433.
• Nemec, W. 1990. Deltas – remarks on terminology and classification. In: Coarse-grained Deltas. Colella, A. and Prior, D. B. (Ed.). International Association of Sedimentologists. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Special Publication 10, Oxford, 3-12.
• Nemec, W., Steel, R. J. 1984. Alluvial and Coastal Conglomerates: Their signifcant features and some comments on gravelly mass-flow deposits. In: Sedimentology of Gravels and Conglomerates – Memoir 10, 1-34.
• Nemec, W., Steel, R. J. 1985. Stacked, shore-attached, sheet sandstones in a Paleocene inland seway succession (Endalen Member, Spitsbergen) (abs): International Association of Sedimentologists, 6th European Regional Metting, Lleida, Spain. 321-324.
• Nichols, G. 2009. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Wiley- Blackwell, 419 p.
• Nilsen, T. H. 1982. Alluvial fan deposits: In: Scholle, P. A., Spearing, D. (Eds.), Sandstone depositional environments. Mem. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 31, 49-86.
• Örgülü, G., Aktar, M., Turkelli, N., Sandvol, E., Barazangi, M. 2003. Contribution to the seismotectonics of eastern Turkey from moderate and small size events. Geophysical Research Letters 30, 8040.
• Picard, M. D., High, L. R. 1972. Recognition of ancient sedimentary environments. Rigby, J. K., Hamblin, W. K. (Ed.). Soc. Econ. Paleontologists Mineralogists Special Publication 16, 108-145.
• Picard, M. D., High, L. R. 1981. Physical stratigraphy of ancient lacustrine deposits. In: Ethridge, F. G., Flores, R. M., Recent and ancient nonmarine depositional environments: Models for exploration. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication 31, 233-259.
• Reimer, A., Landmann, G., Kempe, S. 2009. Lake Van, Eastern Anatolia, hydrochemistry and history. Aquat. Geochem.15, 195-222.
• Postma, G. 1990. Depositional achitecture and facies of river and fal deltas: a synthesi, in: Colella, A., Prior, D.B. (Eds.), Coarse Grained Deltas, Int. Assoc. Sedimento., Spec. Publ. 10, 13-27
• Rust, B. R. 1972. Structure and Process in a braided river, Sedimentology 18, 221-245.
• Reineck, H. E., Singh, I. B. 1975. Depositional Sedimentary Environments. Springer Verlag, 439 .
• Schnellmann, M., Anselmetti, F. S., Giardini, D., McKenzie, J. A., Ward, S. N. 2002. Prehistoric earthquake history revealed by lacustrine slump deposits. Geology 30, 1131-1134.
• Schnellmann, M., Anselmetti, F. S., Giardini, D., McKenzie, J. A., Ward, S. N. 2005. Mass movement-induced fold-and-thrust belt structures in unconsolidated sediments in Lake Lucerne (Switzerland). Sedimentology 52, 271-289.
• Seilacher, A. 1969. Fault-graded beds interpreted as seismites. Sedimentology 13, 155-159.
• Sly, P. G. (1978). Sedimentary Processes in Lakes. In: Lerman, A. (Ed.) Lakes, Springer New York: 65-89.
• Sohn, Y. K. 2000. Depositional Processes of Submarine Debris Flows in the Miocene Fan Deltas, Pohang Basin, SE Korea with Special Reference to Flow Transformation. Journal of Sedimentary Research 70, 491-503.
• Steel, R. J. 1974. New Red Sandstone floodplain and piedmont sedimentation in the Hebridean Province. J. Sedim. Petrol. 44, 336-357.
• Steel, R. J., Wilson, A. C. 1975. Sedimentation and tectonism (?Permo-Triassic) on the margin of the North Minch Basin,. J. Geol. Soc. London 131, 183-202.
• Stockhecke, M. Anselmetti, F.S., Meydan, A.F. Odermatt, D., Sturm, M. 2012. The annual particle cycle in Lake Van (Turkey). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333-334, 148–159..
• Stockhecke, M., Anselmetti, F.S., Sturm, M. 2014. Past seismic activity in Eastern Anatolia recorded over several glacial/interglacial cycles in the sediments of Lake Van. Quaternary Science Reviews.
• Stockhecke, M., Kwiecien, O., Vigliotti, L., Anselmetti, F.S. Beer, J., Çağatay, M.N., Channell, J.E.T,. Kipfer, R., Lachner, J., Litt, T., Pickarski, N., Sturm, M. 2014. Chronostratigraphy of the 600,000 year old continental record of Lake Van (Turkey). Quaternary Science Reviews. 104, 8-17.
• Stockhecke, M., Sturm M., Brunner, I., Schmincke, H.-U., Sumita, M., Kwiecien, O., Çukur, D., Anselmetti, F.S. 2014. Sedimentary evolution andenvironmental history of Lake Van (Turkey) over the past 600,000 years. Sedimentology 61(6), 1830-1861.
• Sumita, M., Schmincke, H.U. 2013a. Impact of volcanism on the evolution of Lake Van II: Temporal evolution of explosive volcanism of Nemrut Volcano (eastern Anatolia) during the past ca. 0.4 Ma. Journal of Volcanology Geothermal Research 253, 15–34.
• Sumita, M., Schmincke, H.U. 2013b. Impact of volcanism on the evolution of Lake Van I: evolution of explosive volcanism of Nemrut Volcano (eastern Anatolia) during the past >400,000 years. Bulletin of Volcanology 75, 714.
• Şaroğlu, F., Güner, Y. 1981. Doğu Anadolu’nun jeomorfolojik gelişimine etki eden öğeler: Jeomorfoloji, tektonik, volkanizma ilişkileri. TJK Bülteni 24, 39-50.
• Şenel, M., Ercan, T. 2002, 1:500000 Ölçekli Türkiye Jeoloji Haritası, Van Paftası, Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara
• Şengör. A.M.C., Yılmaz, Y. 1981. Tethyan evolution of Turkey: A plate tectonic approach. Tectonophysics 75, 181-241.
• Şengör. A.M.C., Görür, N., Şaroğlu, F. 1985. Strike-slip faulting and related basin formation in zones of tectonic escape: Turkey as case study. Biddle, K.T., Christie-Blick, N. (Ed.). Strike-slip faulting and basin formation. Spec. Publ. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral 37, 227-264.
• Şengör, A., Özeren, S., Genç, T., Zor, E. 2003. East Anatolian high plateau as a mantle supported, north-south shortened domal structure. Geophysical Research Letters 30, 24.
• Şengör, A.M.C., Özeren, M.S., Keskin, M., Sakınç, M., Özbakır, A.D., Kayan, İ. 2008. Eastern Turkish high plateau as a small Turkic-type orogen: Implications for post-collisional crust-forming processes in Turkic-type orogens. Earth-Science Reviews. 90, 1–48.
• Tan, O. 2004. Kafkasya, Doğu Anadolu ve Kuzeybatı İran Depremlerinin Kaynak Mekanizması Özellikleri ve Yırtılma Süreçleri, Doktora Tezi, İTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul (unpublished).
• Todd, S. P. 1989. Stream-driven, high-density gravelly traction carpets: possible deposits in the Trabeg Conglomerate Formation, SW Ireland and some theoretical considerations of their origin. Sedimentology 36, 513-530.
• Toker, M., Krastel, S., Demirel-Schlueter, F., Demirbağ, E., İmren, C. 2007. Volcano-seismicity of Lake Can (Eastern Turkey): A comparative analysis of seismic reflection and three-component velocity seismogram data and new insights into Volcanic Lake Seismicity. Earthquake Symposium Kocaeli. 22-26 October 2007, 103-109.
• Toker, M., Şengör, A. M. C. 2011. Van Gölü havzasının temel yapısal unsurları, tektonik ve sedimanter evrimi, Doğu Türkiye, İTÜ Dergisi 10 (4), 119-130.
• Türkelli, N., Sandvol, E., Zor, E., Gök, R., Bekler, T., Al- Lazki, A., Karabulut, H., Kuleli, S., Eken, T., Gürbüz, C., Bayraktutan, S., Seber, D., Barazangi, M. 2003. Seismogenic zones in Eastern Turkey. Geophysıcal Research Letters 30, 8039-8042.
• Utkucu, M. 2006. Implications for the water level change triggered moderate (M ? 4.0) earthquakes in Lake Van basin, Eastern Turkey. Journal of Seismology 10, 105-117.
• Üner, S. 2014, Seismogenic structures in Quaternary lacustrine deposits of Lake Van (eastern Turkey), Geologos 20 (2), 79-87.
• Valeton, I. 1978. A morphological and petrological study the terraces around Lake Van, Turkey. Degens, E.T. and Kurtman, F. (Ed.). Geology of Lake Van. MTA Publications 169, 64-80.
• Van Ransbergen, P., De Batist, M., Beck, C. 1999. High- resolution seismic stratigraphy of glacial to interglacial fill of a deep glacigenic lake: Lake Le Bourget, Northwestern Alps, France. Sediment Geol. 128, 99-129.
• Volland, S., Sturm, M., Lukas, S., Pino, M., Müller, J. 2007. Geomorphological and sedimentological evolution of a lake basin under strong volcano- tectonic influence: the seismic record of Logo Calafquen (south-central Chile). Quaternary International. 161, 32-45.
• Wick, L., Lemcke, G., Sturm, M. 2003. Evidence of Lateglacial and Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia: high resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geochemical records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey. The Holocene 13, 665–675.
• Wolff, E. W., Chappellaz, J., Blunier, T., Rasmussen, S. O., Svensson, A. 2010. Millennial–scale variability during the last glacial: The ice core record. Quaternary Scienc. Reviews 29, 2828–2838.
• Wong, H.K., Degens, E.T. 1978. The bathymetry of Lake Van; eastern Turkey. Degens E.T., Kurtman F. (Ed.). The Geology of Lake Van. MTA Press. Ankara, 6-10.
• Wong, H.K, Finckh, P. 1978. Shallow structures in Lake Van. Degens, E.T., Kurtman, F. (Ed.). Geology of Lake Van. MTA Yayınları. Ankara, 20-28.
• Yılmaz, Y., Güner, Y., Şaroğlu, F. 1998. Geology of the Quaternary volcanic centres of the east Anatolia. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 85, 173–210.