ANALYSIS OF AN INDEPENDENCE STRUGGLE IN NORTH AFRICA: POLISARIO FRONT AND SAHRAWI ARAB DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (SADR)

Year 2019, Volume: 21 Issue: 4, 1321 - 1353, 19.12.2019

Cantürk Caner , Betül Şengül

https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.514255

Cited By: 2

Abstract

The problems of the Western Sahara known as the latest
colony of Africant continent still keeps its significance in world public
opinion silently. The region which was annexed by the Spanish and Morocco
during the approximately two centuries is still one of the unsolved
geopolitical questions of the world. The independence of the Western Sahara has
been initiated under the leadership of the Front Polisario as an organized
manner since the 70s. Despite the fact that Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
defined as non-self-governing territory by the United Nations (UN), it was
recognized by many states and became the full member of the African Union as a
concrete success of the Front Polisario. As a matter of fact, the struggle of
the Front Polisario for the sake of the independence is a kind of unique way in
20th century. The developments in Western Sahara cannot be ignorable matter for
the literature of the international relations. In this context, this study
elaborates the matter of independence in the Western Sahara historically and
aims to explain the nation-building strategies of the Front Polisario with its
historical, political, structural and legal dimensions.     

Keywords

Western Sahara, Independence, Polisario Front, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Constitutions

KUZEY AFRİKA’DA BİR BAĞIMSIZLIK MÜCADELESİ ANALİZİ: POLİSARİO CEPHESİ VE SAHRA ARAP DEMOKRATİK CUMHURİYETİ (SADC)

Abstract

Bugün Afrika Kıtasının son sömürge coğrafyası olarak
bilinen Batı Sahra sorunu yüzyılı aşkın bir süredir dünya kamuoyundaki yerini
sessizce korumaktadır. Yaklaşık iki yüzyıl boyunca İspanyollar, ardından da Fas
hükümeti tarafından ilhak edilmek istenen bölge, halen dünyanın çözülememiş
jeopolitik sorunlarından birisidir. Batı Sahra’nın bağımsızlığı Polisario
Cephesi liderliğinde yetmişli yıllardan bu yana örgütlü olarak yürütülmektedir.
BM tarafından kendisini idare edemeyen topraklar olarak tanımlanmasına karşın; de
facto biçimde onlarca devlet tarafından tanınan ve Afrika Birliği’nin tam üyesi
olan Sahra Arap Demokratik Cumhuriyeti (SADC), Polisario Cephesinin başarısını gösteren
en somut aşamadır. Polisario Cephesi’nin yürüttüğü bağımsızlık mücadelesi esasen
20. yüzyılda örneğine az rastlanan bir mücadele biçimidir. Ülkemiz gündeminde tam
olarak bilinmemekle birlikte Batı Sahra’da yaşanan gelişmeler, uluslararası
ilişkiler yazını bakımından göz ardı edilmemesi gereken bir konudur. İşte bu
çalışma Batı Sahra’da yaşanan bağımsızlık sorununu tarihsel açıdan ele almakta
ve Polisario Cephesi’nin ulus devlet kurma yolundaki çabalarını siyasal, yapısal
ve hukuksal çerçevelerde, tarihi boyutlarıyla ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. 

Keywords

Batı Sahra, Bağımsızlık Mücadelesi, Polisario Cephesi, Sahra Arap Demokratik Cumhuriyeti, Anayasa

References

• Aljezeera (2018). Morocco accuses Algeria of supporting Iran in Western Sahara feud. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/morocco-accuses-algeria-supporting-iran-western-sahara-feud-180513073052685.html (Erişim Tarihi: 10.06.2018).
• Ambrosso, G. & Hilal, Y. (2013). Bridge over troubled desert: A review of the UNHCR Confidence Building Measures Programme in the Western Sahara Territory and in the refugee camps near Tindouf. Geneva: UN High Commissioner For Refugees Policy Development And Evaluation Service (PDES).
• Arief, A. (2012). Western Sahara. CRS Report for Congress RS20962 7-5700, Washington, USA.
• Besenyö, J. (2009). Western Sahara. Hungaria: Poblikon Publishers.
• Besenyö, J. (2010a). Western-Sahara under the Spanish Empire. AARMS, 9 (2), (195-215).
• Besenyö, J. (2010b). Sahrâvî refugees in Algeria. AARMS, 9 (1), 67-78.
• Brecher, M. & Wilkenfeld, J. (1997). A study of crisis. USA: Michigan University Press.
• CIA. The World Factbook Africa: The Western Sahara. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wi.html (Erişim Tarihi: 07.03.2017).
• Dunmire, B. R. (2009). North Africa, Understanding Africa: A geographic approach. A.Richmond, Krakowka ve Laurel J. Hummel (Ed.), içinde (ss.1-19). US: Military Academy, West Point, New York.
• Duman, S. (2012). Berlin Kongresi. 38. ICANAS Uluslararası Asya ve Kuzey Afrika Çalışmaları Kongresi (10-15 Eylül 2007) Tarih ve Medeniyetler Tarihi, Cilt:III, Bildirileri içinde (ss.1183-1190), Ankara: Ankara Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu Yayınları.
• Farah, R. (2012). Knowledge in the service of the cause: Education and the Sahrâvî struggle for self-determination. Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 27 (2), 30-42.
• Harris, G. (1994). Organization of African Unity. Vol.7, UK: Clio Press.
• Heya, Y. (2013). Political opinion and national identity: Dilemma of the Sahrâvî ethnic unity after 38 years of diaspora. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Social Sciences and Education University of Tromsø, The Faculty of Humanities, Norway.
• IBP (2013). Western Sahara Business Law Handbook. Vol:1, USA: International Business Publications. Independent, (05.03.2011). Malta to host meeting on disputed Western Sahara territory. http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2011-03-05/news/malta-to-host-meeting-on-disputed-western-sahara-territory-288712/ (Erişim Tarihi: 02.12.2017). International Court of Justice, (1975). Western Sahara Advisory Report. (16.10.1975). https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/61/061-19751016-ADV-01-08-EN.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 11.12.2017).
• King, S. J. (2006). The emergence and politics of the Polisario Front. Perspectives on Western Sahara, içinde (ss.71-91), Anouar Boukhars and Jacques Roussellier(Ed), UK: Rowman-Littlefield Press.
• Lakhal, M. (2012). An independent Western Sahara State is the solution. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 23 (24), 40-51.
• Lamiri, A. A. (2014). Development of the peace process in the Western Sahara Conflict. (Unpublished Master Thesis). U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Faculty of the Military Art and Sciences, USA.
• La Porte, P. (2016). Humanitarian assistance during the Rif War (Morocco, 1921–6): The International Committee of the Red Cross and an unfortunate affair. Historical Research, 89, (243), 113-135.
• Lipski, J.M. (2001). The Spanish of Equatorial Guinea: Research on La Hispanidad's best-kept secret. http://www.personal.psu.edu/jml34/eg.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 11.12.2016).
• Martin, P.S. (2005). Nationalism, identity and citizenship in the Western Sahara. The Journal of African Studies, 10 (3-4), 565-592.
• Miller, L. G. (2014). The Polisario Front and the World: Leveraging international support for Sahrâvî self-determination. Report for Master of Arts, The University of Texas at Austin, Faculty of the Graduate School (May 2014). USA.
• Miller, S. G. (2013). A history of Modern Morocco. USA, Cambridge University Press.
• Morina, F. I, (2016). Moroccan foreign policy under Mohammed VI 1999-2016. USA, Routladge Press.
• Mundy, J. (2010). Algeria and the Western Sahara dispute. The Maghreb Center Journal, Spring/Summer, (1), 1-14.
• Munene, M. (2010). Multiple colonialim in Western Sahara. Journal of Language, Technology & Entrepreneurship in Africa, 2 (2), 178-195.
• Olsson, C. (2006). The Western Sahara conflict – Chronology. The Western Sahara conflict the role of natural resources in decolonization. içinde (ss.5-9). Claes Olsson (Ed.), Sweeden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, (Current African Issues, No:33).
• Omar, S. M. (2008). The right of self-determination and the indigenous people of Western Sahara. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21 (1), 44-45.
• Pennel, C. E. R. (1979). A critical investigation of the opposition of The Rifi Confederation led by Muramm Bin Abd Al-Karim Al-Khattabi to Spanish colonial expansion in Northern Morocco 1920-1925 and its political and social background. (Unpublished Doctorate Thesis). University of Leeds, Department of Semitic Studies, UK.
• Permanent Mission of Kingdom of Morocco, (2004). http://www.mission-maroc.ch/en/pages/253.html (Erişim Tarihi: 15.01.2017). SADC 1982 Anayasası. http://www.usc.es/export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/descargas/Constitution-RASD_1982_fr.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 22.08.2017).
• SADC 1991 Anayasası. https://engconstitution.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/constitucion-politica-de-la-rasd-1991.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:22.08.2018).
• SADC 1995 Anayasası. http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/1995-constitution-de-la-rasd/ (Erişim Tarihi:22.08.2018).
• SADC 1999 Anayasası. http://www.arso.org/03-const.99.htm (Erişim Tarihi:11.12.2016).
• SADC 2015 Anayasası. http://www.usc.es/export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/descargas/RASD_Constitution-of-SADR-2015_en.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:23.08.2018).
• Sahara Press Service (2017). Polisario Front becomes consultative member of Socialist International Association. (04.03.2017). https://www.spsrasd.info/news/en/articles/2017/03/04/7511.html (Erişim Tarihi:05.04.2017).
• Seligmann, A. L (1982). The Western Sahara: A decolonization dilemma. 18th Session Senior Seminar in Foreign Policy, Department of State, USA. https://nautilus.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/767-Albert-L.-Selig-mann.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:11.02.2017).
• Shelley, T. (2004). End game in the Western Sahara. USA: Zedbooks Inc.
• Smith JR, M. A. A. (1977). Sovereignty over unoccupied territories-The Western Sahara decision, case western reserve. Journal of International Law, 9 (1), 135-159.
• SSI- Strategic Studies Institude (2013). War and Insurgeny in the Western Sahara. Staff Researcher. http://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/pub1152.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:.20.03.2018).
• Souare, I. K. (2007). Western Sahara: Is there light at the end of the tunnel?. Institute For Security Studies, Paper 155, (1-6).
• Stephan M. J. & Mundy, J. (2006). A battlefield transformed: From guerilla resistance to mass nonviolent struggle in The Western Sahara. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Spring, 8 (3), 1-32.
• The American Journal of International Law (1912). Treaty between France and Spain concerning Morocco. The American Journal of International Law, 6 (2), Supplement: Official Documents (IV), (116-120).
• Theofilopoulou, A. (2006). The United Nations and Western Sahara a never-ending affair, United States Institute of Peace Special Report. (July), https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/sr166.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:10.02.2017).
• Tucker, L. (2009). Remember the Western Sahara? Conflict, irredentism, nationalism and international intervention. http://www.e-ir.info/2009/08/07/remember-the-western-sahara-conflict-irredentism-nationalism-and-international-intervention/ (Erişim Tarihi:02.02.2017).
• UN General Assembly (1965). Resolution 2072 (XX). (16.12.1965). https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/35/IMG/NR021835.pdf?OpenElement (Erişim Tarihi:20.03.2017).
• UN, General Assembly (1974). Resolution 3292 (XXIX). (13.12.1974). https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/738/94/IMG/NR073894.pdf?OpenElement (Erişim Tarihi: 20.03.2018).
• UN, General Assembly (1990). 44th Plenary Meeting. (20.11.1990). http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/45/a45r021.htm (Erişim Tarihi:07.02.2018).
• UN (1975). Morocco, Mauritania and Spain declaration of principles on Western Sahara. Done at Madrid on 14 November 1975. (14.11.1975). https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20988/volume-988-i-14450-english.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:11.12.2017).
• UN (2017). Non-Self Governing Territories. http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/nonselfgovterritories.shtml (Erişim Tarihi:07.02.2017).
• UN Peacekeping (2017). Minurso fact sheet. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/minurso (Erişim Tarihi:15.01.2017).
• UN Security Council (1976). Letter dated 26 February 1976 from the Permanent Representative of Spain, https://saharadoc.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/a-31-56-s-11997-26-february-1976-en.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:12.12.2017).
• UN Security Council (1991). Resolution 690. (20.04.1991). http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/690(1991) (Erişim Tarihi:15.01.2017).
• UN Security Council (2002). Interim report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara, S/2002/41. (10.01.2002). http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2002/41 (Erişim Tarihi:15.01.2017).
• UN Security Council (2002). Report for Secretary General on the Situation concerning Western Sahara S/2002/178. (19.02.2002). http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2002/178 (Erişim Tarihi:15.02.2017).
• UN Security Council (2002). Report for Secretary General on the Situation concerning Western Sahara, S/2002/467. (19.04.2002). http://www.refworld.org/docid/3cc91bd8a.html, (Erişim Tarihi:15.02.2017).
• UN Security Council (2002). Resolution 1478. (30.07.2002). http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1429(2002) (Erişim Tarihi:15.02.2017).
• UN Security Council (2017). UN Documents for Western Sahara. http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/western-sahara/ (Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2017).
• UN Treaty Collection. Morocco, Mauritania and Spain. Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara. Done at Madrid on 14 November 1975. No:14440. https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20988/volume-988-i-14450-english.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 11.12.2016).
• Western Sahara Sahara Occidental (2018). Proclamation of the First Government of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (27.02.1976). http://www.arso.org/03-1.htm (Erişim Tarihi: 22.08.2018).
• World ebook Library, Outline of The Sahrâvî Arab Democratic Republic. http://www.worldebooklibrary.net/article/WHEBN0017688945/Outline%20of%20the%20Sahrâvî%20Arab%20Democratic%20Republic (Erişim Tarihi: 28.06.2018)
• Zunes, S. & Mundy, J. (2010). Western Sahara. Canada: Syracuse University Press.
• Zunes, S. (1987). Nationalism and non-alignment: The non-ideology of the Polisario. Africa Today, 34 (3), (Special Issue: Western Sahara: Africa's Forgotten War), (33-46).