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An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey

Year 2023, Volume: 23 Issue: 3, 363 - 376, 24.07.2023

Ceyda Aktan , Yaşar Köse , Emre Yılmaz

https://doi.org/10.21121/eab.1009105

Abstract

In this study, the relationship between Turkey's defense expenditures and the independent variables selected as gross domestic product, foreign debt, and unemployment, in a 33-year period between 1998 and 2020, were examined using the Toda-Yamamoto causality test. According to the findings, it has been observed that there is causality from defense expenditures to gross domestic product, that is, the change in defense expenditures affects gross domestic product. Similarly, causality has been determined from defense expenditures to external debt. Therefore, it is possible to state that the change in defense expenditures will have an impact on foreign debt. In this respect, the findings are in agreement with the literature. The increase in defense expenditures will increase the production of the defense industry, the export of this production will result in a resource inflow to the country and the gross domestic product will increase. On the other hand, in some countries, defense expenditures will be financed by debt from foreign sources, which will increase foreign debt.

Keywords

Defence Resources Defence Expenditures Gross Domestic Product Causality Foreign Debt

Supporting Institution

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Project Number

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Thanks

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References

  • Ali, A., and M. Ather. 2014. “Impact of defense expenditure on economic growth: Time series evidence from Pakistan.” Global Journal of Management and Business Research 14 (9).
  • Ateşoglu, H. S. 2004. “Defense spending and investment in the United States.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (1): 163-170.
  • Ateşoglu, H. S., and M. J. Mueller. 1990. “Defense spending and economic growth.” Defence Economics 2 (1): 19-27.
  • Atik, M., Y. Köse, B. Yılmaz, and F. Sağlam. 2015. “Kripto Para: Bitcoin ve Döviz Kurları Üzerine Etkileri.” Bartın Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 6 (11): 247-262.
  • Abdel-Khalek, G., M. G. Mazloum, and , M. R. M. El Zeiny. 2020. “Military expenditure and economic growth: the case of India.” Review of Economics and Political Science 5 (2): 116-135.
  • Azam, M. 2020. “Does military spending stifle economic growth? The empirical evidence from non-OECD countries.” Heliyon 6 (12) e 5853: 1-10.
  • Bakırcı, F., R. Bayrak, and S. Önal. 2016. “Savunma Sanayilerinde Toplam Faktör Verimliliği.” Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 30 (4): 751-769.
  • Bayrak, R., F. Bakırcı, and M. Sarıkaya. 2015. “Savunma Sanayinde VZA Yöntemiyle Etkinlik Analizi.” Girişimcilik ve Kalkınma Dergisi 10 (2): 26-50.
  • Bayrak, R. 2019a. “Does Optimal Size of Defense Expenditure Exist: An Empirical Study on Turkey.” Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi 18 (1): 135-160.
  • Bayrak, R. 2019b. “Economic Efficiency and Total Productivity of Defense Industries in NATO and EUROZONE Countries.” Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 18 (Special Issue): 85-98.
  • Benoit, E. 1973. Defense and growth in developing countries. Lexington: Mass Lexington Books.
  • Benoit, E. 1978. “Growth and defense in developing countries.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 26 (2): 271-280.
  • Biçer, B. 2020. “Dış Borç - Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: 1970-2017 Dönemi Türkiye Örneği.” Osmaniye Korkut Ata University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences 4 (1): 23-45.
  • Checherita, C. and P. Rother. 2010. “The impact of high and growing government debt on economic growth an empirical investigation for the euro area.” Working Paper Series, No. 1237, 4-28.
  • Chen, P. F., C. C. Lee, and Y. B. Chiu. 2014. “The nexus between defense expenditure and economic growth: New global evidence.” Economic Modelling 36: 474-483.
  • Çevik, İ. E. and G. Bektaş. 2019. “Savunma Harcamaları Ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği.” Balkan Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 8 (16): 229–236.
  • Cesares, E. R. 2015. “A relationship between external public debt and economic growth.” Estudios Economicus 30 (2): 219-243.
  • Dan, L., H. Wei-Xuan, and Z. Mei-Yan. 2014. “An empirical study on impact of China’s outward foreign direct investment on export trade structure optimization.” BioTechnology 10 (18): 10133-10138.
  • Değer, S. 1986. “Economic development and defense expenditure.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1): 179-196.
  • Değer, S., and R. Smith. 1983. “Military expenditure and growth in less developed countries.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 27 (2): 335-353.
  • Dunne, J. P., and N. Tian. 2013. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: A Survey.” The Economics of Peace and Security Journal 8 (1): 5-11.
  • Gazel, S. 2017. “BİST Sınai Endeksi İle Çeşitli Metaller Arasındaki İlişki: Toda-Yamamoto Nedensellik Testi.” The Journal of Academic Social Science 5 (52): 287-299.
  • Gentilucci, E. 2020. “A causality analysis. Military expenditures and economic growth in USA and China.” Munich Personal RePEc, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/104848/ MPRA Paper No. 104848, 1-23.
  • Giray, F. 2004. “Savunma Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme.” C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi 5 (1): 184-185.
  • Grobar, L. and R. Porter. 1989. “Benoit revisited: defence spending and economic growth in less developed countries.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 33: 318-45.
  • Gujarati, D. N. 2006. Temel Ekonometri, (Çev. Ü. Şenesen ve G.G. Şenesen). Literatür Yayıncılık: İstanbul. Heo, U. 1999. “Defense spending and economic growth in South Korea: The indirect link.” Journal of Peace Research 36 (6): 699-708.
  • Huntington, S. P. 1996. “The Clash of Civilizations and Remarking of World Order.” Simon & Schuster, 1-353.
  • Koçoğlu, M., and M. Duyar. 2014. “Askeri Harcamaların Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerine Etkisi; Afrika Ülkelerinden Sub-Saharan Afrika Örneği.” Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 7 (33): 702-722.
  • Korkmaz, S. 2015. “The Effect of Military Spending on Economic Growth and Unemployment in Mediterranean Countries.” International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 5 (1): 273-280.
  • Küçükşahin, A., and T. Akkan. 2007. “Değişen Güvenlik Algılamaları Işığında Tehdit ve Asimetrik Tehdit.” Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi 3 (5): 41-66.
  • Kwabena, G. 1989. “Defense spending and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: An econometric investigation.” Journal of Peace Research 26 (1): 79-90.
  • Lim, D. 1983. “Another look at growth and defense in less developed countries.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (2): 377-384.
  • Lipow, J., and C. M. Antinori. 1995. “External security threats, defence expenditures, and the economic growth of less developed countries.” Journal of Policy Modeling 17: 579-95.
  • Mishkin, F. S. 2004. The Economics of Money, Banking and Financial Markets. The Addison-Wesley Series in Economics, 7th. Edition, Pearson.
  • NATO. 2020. “NATO Wales Summit 2014.” Accessed on 10 Ağuston 2020. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ events_112136.htm.
  • Nugroho, D. A. and E. Y. Purwanti. 2021. “Impact of Military Expenditure on Economic Growth Encouraging or Constraining?” Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Kebijekan 14 (1): 9-20.
  • Pieroni, L. 2009. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth.” Defence and Peace Economics 20 (4): 327-339.
  • Rahman, T., and D. Siddiqui. 2019. “The Effect of Military Spending on Economic Growth in the Presence of Arms Trade: A Global Analysis.” SSRN Electronic Journal. 1-46.
  • Shieh, J., C. Lai, and W. Chang. 2002. “The impact of military burden on long-run growth and welfare.” Journal of Development Economics 68 (2): 443-454.
  • Stockholm International Peace Research Institute – SIPRI. 2021. Accessed 10 May 2021. https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all %20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20as%20a%20share%20of%20GDP%20%28pdf%29.pdf.
  • Sokhatskyi, O., R. Dluhopolskyi, M. Taranukha, and O. Taranukha. 2020. “Military Expenditures and World Economic Growth under Hybrid Warfare Conditions.” International Journal of Industrial Engineering & Production Research 31 (4): 511-522.
  • Temitope, J., and A. Olayinka. 2021. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from Nigeria.” American Journal of Economics 11 (1): 10-18.
  • Toda, H. Y., and T. Yamamoto. 1995. “Statistical Inference in Vector Autoregressions With Possibly Integrated Processes.” Journal of Econometrics 66: 225-250.
  • Torun, M., E. Eroğlu, and R. Bayrak. 2021. “Savunma Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi: Panel Veri Analizi.” Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi 19 (40): 489-507.
  • Yavuz, N. 2006. “Türkiye’de Turizm Gelirlerinin Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisinin Testi: Yapısal Kırılma ve Nedensellik Analizi.” Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi 7 (2) 162-171.
  • Yildirim, J., S. Sezgin, and N. Öcal. 2005. “Military expenditure and economic growth in Middle Eastern countries: A dynamic panel data analysis.” Defence and Peace Economics 16 (4): 283-295.
  • https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20%282019%29%20USD%20%28pdf%29.pdf, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BN.CAB.XOKA.GD.ZS?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/DT.DOD.DECT.GN.ZS?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://www.mahfiegilmez.com/2013/01/ekonomideki-iliskiler-ve-celiskiler.html, (Accessed 20 September 2021).

Year 2023, Volume: 23 Issue: 3, 363 - 376, 24.07.2023

Ceyda Aktan , Yaşar Köse , Emre Yılmaz

https://doi.org/10.21121/eab.1009105

Abstract

Project Number

----

References

  • Ali, A., and M. Ather. 2014. “Impact of defense expenditure on economic growth: Time series evidence from Pakistan.” Global Journal of Management and Business Research 14 (9).
  • Ateşoglu, H. S. 2004. “Defense spending and investment in the United States.” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (1): 163-170.
  • Ateşoglu, H. S., and M. J. Mueller. 1990. “Defense spending and economic growth.” Defence Economics 2 (1): 19-27.
  • Atik, M., Y. Köse, B. Yılmaz, and F. Sağlam. 2015. “Kripto Para: Bitcoin ve Döviz Kurları Üzerine Etkileri.” Bartın Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 6 (11): 247-262.
  • Abdel-Khalek, G., M. G. Mazloum, and , M. R. M. El Zeiny. 2020. “Military expenditure and economic growth: the case of India.” Review of Economics and Political Science 5 (2): 116-135.
  • Azam, M. 2020. “Does military spending stifle economic growth? The empirical evidence from non-OECD countries.” Heliyon 6 (12) e 5853: 1-10.
  • Bakırcı, F., R. Bayrak, and S. Önal. 2016. “Savunma Sanayilerinde Toplam Faktör Verimliliği.” Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 30 (4): 751-769.
  • Bayrak, R., F. Bakırcı, and M. Sarıkaya. 2015. “Savunma Sanayinde VZA Yöntemiyle Etkinlik Analizi.” Girişimcilik ve Kalkınma Dergisi 10 (2): 26-50.
  • Bayrak, R. 2019a. “Does Optimal Size of Defense Expenditure Exist: An Empirical Study on Turkey.” Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi 18 (1): 135-160.
  • Bayrak, R. 2019b. “Economic Efficiency and Total Productivity of Defense Industries in NATO and EUROZONE Countries.” Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 18 (Special Issue): 85-98.
  • Benoit, E. 1973. Defense and growth in developing countries. Lexington: Mass Lexington Books.
  • Benoit, E. 1978. “Growth and defense in developing countries.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 26 (2): 271-280.
  • Biçer, B. 2020. “Dış Borç - Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: 1970-2017 Dönemi Türkiye Örneği.” Osmaniye Korkut Ata University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences 4 (1): 23-45.
  • Checherita, C. and P. Rother. 2010. “The impact of high and growing government debt on economic growth an empirical investigation for the euro area.” Working Paper Series, No. 1237, 4-28.
  • Chen, P. F., C. C. Lee, and Y. B. Chiu. 2014. “The nexus between defense expenditure and economic growth: New global evidence.” Economic Modelling 36: 474-483.
  • Çevik, İ. E. and G. Bektaş. 2019. “Savunma Harcamaları Ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği.” Balkan Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 8 (16): 229–236.
  • Cesares, E. R. 2015. “A relationship between external public debt and economic growth.” Estudios Economicus 30 (2): 219-243.
  • Dan, L., H. Wei-Xuan, and Z. Mei-Yan. 2014. “An empirical study on impact of China’s outward foreign direct investment on export trade structure optimization.” BioTechnology 10 (18): 10133-10138.
  • Değer, S. 1986. “Economic development and defense expenditure.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1): 179-196.
  • Değer, S., and R. Smith. 1983. “Military expenditure and growth in less developed countries.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 27 (2): 335-353.
  • Dunne, J. P., and N. Tian. 2013. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: A Survey.” The Economics of Peace and Security Journal 8 (1): 5-11.
  • Gazel, S. 2017. “BİST Sınai Endeksi İle Çeşitli Metaller Arasındaki İlişki: Toda-Yamamoto Nedensellik Testi.” The Journal of Academic Social Science 5 (52): 287-299.
  • Gentilucci, E. 2020. “A causality analysis. Military expenditures and economic growth in USA and China.” Munich Personal RePEc, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/104848/ MPRA Paper No. 104848, 1-23.
  • Giray, F. 2004. “Savunma Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme.” C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi 5 (1): 184-185.
  • Grobar, L. and R. Porter. 1989. “Benoit revisited: defence spending and economic growth in less developed countries.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 33: 318-45.
  • Gujarati, D. N. 2006. Temel Ekonometri, (Çev. Ü. Şenesen ve G.G. Şenesen). Literatür Yayıncılık: İstanbul. Heo, U. 1999. “Defense spending and economic growth in South Korea: The indirect link.” Journal of Peace Research 36 (6): 699-708.
  • Huntington, S. P. 1996. “The Clash of Civilizations and Remarking of World Order.” Simon & Schuster, 1-353.
  • Koçoğlu, M., and M. Duyar. 2014. “Askeri Harcamaların Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerine Etkisi; Afrika Ülkelerinden Sub-Saharan Afrika Örneği.” Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 7 (33): 702-722.
  • Korkmaz, S. 2015. “The Effect of Military Spending on Economic Growth and Unemployment in Mediterranean Countries.” International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues 5 (1): 273-280.
  • Küçükşahin, A., and T. Akkan. 2007. “Değişen Güvenlik Algılamaları Işığında Tehdit ve Asimetrik Tehdit.” Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi 3 (5): 41-66.
  • Kwabena, G. 1989. “Defense spending and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: An econometric investigation.” Journal of Peace Research 26 (1): 79-90.
  • Lim, D. 1983. “Another look at growth and defense in less developed countries.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 31 (2): 377-384.
  • Lipow, J., and C. M. Antinori. 1995. “External security threats, defence expenditures, and the economic growth of less developed countries.” Journal of Policy Modeling 17: 579-95.
  • Mishkin, F. S. 2004. The Economics of Money, Banking and Financial Markets. The Addison-Wesley Series in Economics, 7th. Edition, Pearson.
  • NATO. 2020. “NATO Wales Summit 2014.” Accessed on 10 Ağuston 2020. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ events_112136.htm.
  • Nugroho, D. A. and E. Y. Purwanti. 2021. “Impact of Military Expenditure on Economic Growth Encouraging or Constraining?” Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Kebijekan 14 (1): 9-20.
  • Pieroni, L. 2009. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth.” Defence and Peace Economics 20 (4): 327-339.
  • Rahman, T., and D. Siddiqui. 2019. “The Effect of Military Spending on Economic Growth in the Presence of Arms Trade: A Global Analysis.” SSRN Electronic Journal. 1-46.
  • Shieh, J., C. Lai, and W. Chang. 2002. “The impact of military burden on long-run growth and welfare.” Journal of Development Economics 68 (2): 443-454.
  • Stockholm International Peace Research Institute – SIPRI. 2021. Accessed 10 May 2021. https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all %20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20as%20a%20share%20of%20GDP%20%28pdf%29.pdf.
  • Sokhatskyi, O., R. Dluhopolskyi, M. Taranukha, and O. Taranukha. 2020. “Military Expenditures and World Economic Growth under Hybrid Warfare Conditions.” International Journal of Industrial Engineering & Production Research 31 (4): 511-522.
  • Temitope, J., and A. Olayinka. 2021. “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from Nigeria.” American Journal of Economics 11 (1): 10-18.
  • Toda, H. Y., and T. Yamamoto. 1995. “Statistical Inference in Vector Autoregressions With Possibly Integrated Processes.” Journal of Econometrics 66: 225-250.
  • Torun, M., E. Eroğlu, and R. Bayrak. 2021. “Savunma Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi: Panel Veri Analizi.” Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi 19 (40): 489-507.
  • Yavuz, N. 2006. “Türkiye’de Turizm Gelirlerinin Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisinin Testi: Yapısal Kırılma ve Nedensellik Analizi.” Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi 7 (2) 162-171.
  • Yildirim, J., S. Sezgin, and N. Öcal. 2005. “Military expenditure and economic growth in Middle Eastern countries: A dynamic panel data analysis.” Defence and Peace Economics 16 (4): 283-295.
  • https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20%282019%29%20USD%20%28pdf%29.pdf, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BN.CAB.XOKA.GD.ZS?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/DT.DOD.DECT.GN.ZS?locations=TR, (Accessed 11 May 2021).
  • https://www.mahfiegilmez.com/2013/01/ekonomideki-iliskiler-ve-celiskiler.html, (Accessed 20 September 2021).
There are 51 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Economics
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Ceyda Aktan 0000-0001-7040-4711

Yaşar Köse 0000-0003-0073-2095

Emre Yılmaz 0000-0002-6875-8403

Project Number ----
Early Pub Date July 4, 2023
Publication Date July 24, 2023
Acceptance Date March 13, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 23 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Aktan, C., Köse, Y., & Yılmaz, E. (2023). An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey. Ege Academic Review, 23(3), 363-376. https://doi.org/10.21121/eab.1009105
AMA Aktan C, Köse Y, Yılmaz E. An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey. ear. July 2023;23(3):363-376. doi:10.21121/eab.1009105
Chicago Aktan, Ceyda, Yaşar Köse, and Emre Yılmaz. “An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey”. Ege Academic Review 23, no. 3 (July 2023): 363-76. https://doi.org/10.21121/eab.1009105.
EndNote Aktan C, Köse Y, Yılmaz E (July 1, 2023) An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey. Ege Academic Review 23 3 363–376.
IEEE C. Aktan, Y. Köse, and E. Yılmaz, “An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey”, ear, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 363–376, 2023, doi: 10.21121/eab.1009105.
ISNAD Aktan, Ceyda et al. “An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey”. Ege Academic Review 23/3 (July 2023), 363-376. https://doi.org/10.21121/eab.1009105.
JAMA Aktan C, Köse Y, Yılmaz E. An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey. ear. 2023;23:363–376.
MLA Aktan, Ceyda et al. “An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey”. Ege Academic Review, vol. 23, no. 3, 2023, pp. 363-76, doi:10.21121/eab.1009105.
Vancouver Aktan C, Köse Y, Yılmaz E. An Economic Analysis on the Use of Resources Allocated for Defense: An Empirical Study on Turkey. ear. 2023;23(3):363-76.
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