THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION AND POLITCS IN GERMANY: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Year 2024, , 126 - 151, 29.03.2024

Bedri Şahin

https://doi.org/10.48070/erciyesakademi.1362288

Abstract

Germany’s complex interrelationship between politics and religion has formed its social structure for ages, impacting both governmental structure and cultural development. The Holy Roman Empire, a collection of nations in Central Europe, served as an example of the strong entanglement of religion and politics since its emperors frequently combined religious obligations with rule. This dynamic was further compounded by the Protestant Reformation, which Martin Luther started in the 16th century and which brought to a number of religious battles. The gradual secularization of the German state was affected by the rise in popularity of secular principles during the Enlightenment. The Weimar Republic, Germany’s first post-World War I democratic state, established the separation of church and state. Nonetheless, when the Nazi government worked to consolidate its power, religious organizations were persecuted and manipulated under the Third Reich. Germany’s Basic Law allowed for cooperation between the government and religious organizations in areas like social welfare and education while simultaneously guaranteeing religious freedom. As the formerly atheist East Germany joined with the more religiously varied West, the reunification of Germany in 1990 introduced another layer to this connection. Germany’s political landscape is still shaped by the historical interactions between politics and religion, despite the country’s predominately secular status today. This reflects the country’s long history of juggling these tensions. The main focal point of the study is to analyze the evolution of the religion-politics relationship in Germany within a methodological framework. This analysis is supported by document examination and historical research.

Keywords

Religion, Politics, Germany

Project Number

Bu bir proje degil, arastirma makalesidir.

ALMANYA’DA DİN VE SİYASET İLİŞKİSİ: TARİHSEL BİR BAKIŞ

Abstract

Almanya’nın siyaset ve din arasındaki karmaşık ilişkisi, yıllardır toplumsal yapısını şekillendirmiş, hem yönetim yapısını hem de kültürel gelişimini etkilemiştir. Orta Avrupa’da bir dizi ulusun bir araya geldiği Kutsal Roma İmparatorluğu, imparatorlarının sık sık dînî yükümlülükleri yönetimle birleştirdiği için din ve siyasetin güçlü bir şekilde iç içe geçtiğinin bir örneğini oluşturmaktadır. Bu dinamik, 16. yüzyılda Martin Luther tarafından başlatılan Protestan Reformu ile daha da karmaşıklaşmış ve bir dizi dînî savaşa yol açmıştır. Aydınlanma döneminde seküler ilkelere olan ilginin artması, Alman devletinin kademeli sekülerleşmesini etkilemiştir. I. Dünya Savaşı sonrası Almanya’nın ilk demokratik devleti olan Weimar Cumhuriyeti, kilise ve devletin ayrılmasını benimsemiştir. Ancak Üçüncü Reich altında Nazi hükûmeti gücünü pekiştirirken, dînî kuruluşlar zulme uğramış ve manipüle edilmiştir. Almanya’nın Temel Kanunu, sosyal refah ve eğitim gibi alanlarda devlet ve dînî kuruluşlar arasında iş birliğine olanak tanırken, aynı zamanda dînî özgürlüğü garanti altına almıştır. 1990’da eski ateist Doğu Almanya’nın dînî açıdan daha çeşitli Batı ile birleşmesi, bu bağlantıya yeni bir boyut katmıştır. Bugün Almanya’nın ağırlıklı olarak seküler statüsüne rağmen, ülkenin siyasi manzarası tarih boyunca siyaset ve din arasındaki etkileşimler tarafından şekillenmeye devam etmektedir. Bu, ülkenin bu tür gerilimleri dengeleme konusundaki uzun tarihini yansıtmaktadır. Çalışmanın ana odak noktası, metodolojik bir çerçeve içinde Almanya’daki din-siyaset ilişkisinin evrimini analiz etmektir. Bu analiz, belge incelemesi ve tarihsel araştırmalarla desteklenmiştir.

Keywords

Din, Siyaset, Almanya

Ethical Statement

Etik kurallara uydugumu beyan ediyorum.

Supporting Institution

Engelli bir cocugumun tedavileri icin Almanyada yasiyorum. Bagimsiz arastirmaci olarak akademik faaliyetlerimi sürdürüyorum ama gerek Türkiye gerek dünyanin bir baska ülkesinde Siyaset Blimi ve Uluslararasi Iliskiler alaninda UZAKTAN yani online DERS VEREBILECEK BIR ÜNIVERSITE BULURSAM, engelli cocugumun tedavilerini aksatmadan kalan bos zamanlarimda ögrencilere ders vermeyi , ögrenci yetistirmeyi, yüksek lisans veya doktora danismanligi vb. yapmayi cok istiyorum. Bildiklerimi unutmamis olurum,

Project Number

Bu bir proje degil, arastirma makalesidir.

Thanks

Erciyes Akademi dergisine ilerleyen sürecte Almanya ve Halk Cumhuriyeti ile ilgili yazdigim makalelerden bazilarini göndermeyi planladim. Avrupa Calismlari baglaminda genellikle Almanya, Uzakdogu Calismalari baglaminda Cin Halk Cumhuriyeti devletlerine yogunlastim. Tesekkür ediyorum

References

• Adıgüzel, Y. (2010). Almanya’daki Devlet Okullarında 'İslam Din Dersi' Sorunu ve Çözüm Arayışları. Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 5(2), 59-72.
• Al-Hamarneh, A., & Thielmann, J. (Eds.). (2008). Islam and Muslims in Germany (Vol. 7). Brill. h ttps://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004175051.i-562.84.
• Anderson, J. (1999). German Unification and the Union of Europe: the Domestic Politics of Integration Policy. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511491894.
• Arzheimer, K. (2015). The AfD: Finally a Successful Right-Wing Populist Eurosceptic Party for Germany?. West European Politics, 38(3), 535-556. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2015.1004230.
• Asch, R. G. (1997). The Thirty Years War (pp. 9-25). Macmillan Publishers Limited.
• Bader, V. (2007). Secularism or democracy?: Associational Governance of Religious Diversity (p. 386). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.5117/9789053569993.
• Bailey, D. J., De Waele, J. M., Escalona, F., & Vieira, M. (2016). European Social Democracy During the Global Economic Crisis. Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781847799357. Barth, K. (1965). The German Church Conflict. John Knox Press.
• Batey, C. (2020). Neil Price. The Viking Way: Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. Current Swedish Archaeology, 28(1), 306-308. https://doi.org/10.37718/csa.2020.13.
• Baylis, T. A., & Baylis, T. A. (1974). The Technical Intelligentsia and the East German Elite: Legitimacy and Social Change in Mature Communism. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520335509.
• Becker, S. O., Pfaff, S., & Rubin, J. (2016). Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation. Explorations in Economic History, 62, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2016.07.007.
• Berbuir, N., Lewandowsky, M., & Siri, J. (2015). The AfD and Its Sympathisers: Finally a Right-Wing Populist Movement in Germany?. German Politics, 24(2), 154-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2014.982546.
• Bergen, D. L. (2000). Twisted Cross: the German Christian Movement in the Third Reich. University of North Carolina Press. https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/102.3.842.
• Berger, P. L. (1967). The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociology Theory of Religion. Doubleday.
• Berghahn, V. R. (1987). Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century (No. 4-5). Cambridge University Press.
• Besier, G. (2017). The Churches and National Socialism between Hitler’s Religious Equivocation and Rosenberg’s Myth: Ambiguities, Fascination, and Self-Assertion. Classics in Northern European Church History Over 500 Years: Essays in Honour of Anders Jarlert, 153-198.
• Bethge, E. (2000). Dietrich Bonhoeffer: A Biography. Fortress Press.
• Bilmez, A., & Davulcu, E. (2023). İslamofobi ve Medya: Alman MedyasındaDoğu/Müslüman-Batı/Hristiyan Kaynaklı Şiddet Eylemlerinin Temsili. Medya ve Din Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(1), 73-102.
• Blanning, T.C.W. (Ed.). (2000). The Eighteenth Century: Europe 1688-1815. OUP Oxford.
• Brecht, M. (1985). Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 93(1), 204-205.
• Bruce, S. (2002). God is Dead: Secularization in the West (Vol. 3). Oxford: Blackwell.
• Childs, D. (2014). The GDR (RLE: German Politics): Moscow’s German Ally. Routledge.
• Clark, C. M. (2006). Iron Kingdom: the Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.113.1.267.
• Collins, R. (2015). Charlemagne’s Early Campaigns (768–777): A Diplomatic and Military Analysis, by Bernard S. Bachrach. https://doi.org/10.1515/hzhz-2015-0037.
• Conradt, D. P. (2006). The Tipping Point: the 2005 Election and the De-consolidation of the German Party System?. German Politics and Society, 24(1), 11-26. https://doi.org/10.3167/104503006780935306.
• Croxton, D. (2013). Westphalia: the Last Christian Peace. Springer.
• Dale, G. (2006). Popular Protest in East Germany (Vol. 27). Routledge.
• Dalton, R.J. (1994). The Green Rainbow: Environmental Groups in Western Europe. Yale University Press.
• Davidson, H. E. (1990). Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Penguin UK.
• Davie, G. (1994). Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing without Belonging. Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-15250-5_51.
• Davie, G. (2000). Religion in Modern Britain: Changing Sociological Assumptions. Sociology, 34(1), 113-128. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0038038500000080.
• Davie, G., Woodhead, L., & Catto, R. (2016). Secularism and Secularization. In Religions in the Modern World (pp. 551-570). Routledge.
• De Haas, H., Castles, S., & Miller, M. J. (2019). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Bloomsbury Publishing.
• Dempsey, J. (2013). Das Phänomen Merkel: Deutschlands Macht und Möglichkeiten/J. Dempsey/[Aus dem Englischen übers. von Dorothea Jestädt]. Hamburg: Ed. Körber-Stiftung. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12399-013- 0349-9.
• Dilbirliği, M. (2015). Alman Anayasası’nda Din Özgürlüğü ve Din Eğitimi. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, 20(78), 75-104.
• Dilbirliği, M. (2015). Alman Anayasası’nda Din Özgürlüğü ve Din Eğitimi. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, (78), 75-104.
• Dilbirliği, M. (2020). Avrupa’da Din ve Vicdan Özgürlüğü. Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara.
• Eisenstein, E. L. (2005). The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press.
• Elff, M., & Rossteutscher, S. (2011). Stability or decline? Class, religion and the vote in Germany. German Politics, 20(1), 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2011.554109.
• Ericksen, R. P. (1985). Theologians under Hitler. Yale University Press.
• Evans, R. J. (2005). The Coming of the Third Reich (Vol. 1). Penguin.
• Evans, R. J. (2015). Rethinking German History (Routledge Revivals): Nineteenth-Century Germany and the Origins of the Third Reich. Routledge.
• Falassi, A. (1987). Time Out of Time: Essays on the Festival. University of New Mexico Press.
• Fest, J. (1970). The Face of the Third Reich. Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
• Fetzer, J. S., & Soper, J. C. (2005). Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany. Cambridge University Press.
• Fitzgerald, T. E. (2004). The Ecumenical Movement: An Introductory History (No. 72). Greenwood Publishing Group.
• Foroutan, N. (2019). The Post-migrant Paradigm. Refugees Welcome?: Difference and Diversity in a Changing Germany, 142-167. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv12pns28.11.
• Fox, J. (2018). An Introduction to Religion and Politics: Theory and Practice. Routledge.
• Fulbrook, M. (2008). History of Germany 1918-2008: The Divided Nation. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Fulbrook, M. (Ed.). (2022). Power and Society in the GDR, 1961-1979: The’Normalisation of Rule’?. Berghahn Books. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781845459130.
• Gauger, Jörg-Dieter u.a. (2013). Das christliche Menschenbild. Zur Geschichte, Theorie und Programmatik der CDU. Freiburg i.Br.
• Gieseke, J. (2014). The History of the Stasi: East Germany’s Secret Police, 1945-1990. Berghahn Books. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781782382553.
• Goldhagen, D. J. (1996). Daniel Goldhagen. Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351299084-23.
• Green, S. (2004). The Politics of Exclusion: Institutions and Immigration Policy in Contemporary Germany. Manchester University Press.
• Green, M. (Ed.). (2012). The Celtic World. Routledge.
• Grimm, J. (1972). Pressing Genuine Folk Ideals. The Grimms. Indeed were, from the Start, Folk Enthusiasts, Mixing a Kind of Cult of Old German Naivete with Romantic Exaltation of. The Rise of Modern Mythology, 1680-1860, 408.
• Gürbüz, M. (2022). Liberal İslam Yaklaşımı: Eleştirel Bir Değerlendirme. Erciyes Akademi, 36(2), 864-897. https://doi.org/10.48070/erciyesakademi.1114261.
• Heelas, P., & Woodhead, L. (2008). The Spiritual Revolution: Why Religion is Giving Way to Spirituality. Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.4000/assr.6402.
• Hertzke, A. D. (Ed.). (2013). The Future of Religious Freedom: Global Challenges. Oxford University Press, USA.
• Heschel, S. (2008). The Aryan Jesus: Christian Theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400851737.
• Hille, B., Jaide, W., Lohmann, J., & Koch, R. (1990). Junge Gemeinde in Mecklenburg 1983. DDR-Jugend: Politisches Bewußtsein und Lebensalltag, 248-250.
• Hirschfeld, G., Krumeich, G., & Renz, I. (Eds.). (2014). Enzyklopädie Erster Weltkrieg (p. 592). Paderborn: Schöningh. https://doi.org/10.36198/9783838585512.
• Holm, B. J. (1941). Church, State, and Christian Society at the Time of the Investiture Contest. By Gerd Tellenbach, Professor in the University of Giessen. Translated by RF Bennett, Fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. [Studies in Mediaeval History, edited by Geoffrey Barraclough.](Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 1940. Pp. xxiv, 196. 12s. 6d.). https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/46.4.878.
• Holtschneider, K. H. (2001). German Protestants Remember the Holocaust: Theology and the Construction of Collective Memory (Vol.24). LIT Verlag Münster. https://doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dcj010.
• Huizinga, J. (1957). Erasmus and the Age of Reformation, New York (Harper & Brothers) 1957.
• Ito, R. (2016). God in Our Own Image: Demythologizing Protestant Christianity’s Relationship with Nazi Germany. Wheaton Writing: A Journal of Academic Essays, 1, 51-60.
• James, E. (1988) The Franks. Blackwell.
• Jenkins, P. (2011). The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. OUP USA.
• Johnson, T., & Scribner, R. W. (Eds.). (1996). Popular Religion in Germany and Central Europe, 1400-1800. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24836-0.
• Jordon, S. (2019). 1517: Martin Luther and the Invention of the Reformation by Peter Marshall. Lutheran Quarterly, 33(2), 218-220. https://doi.org/10.1353/lut.2019.0032.
• Kaelble, H. (2016). The 1970s in Europe: A Period of Disillusionment or Promise? Routledge,
• Kalyvas, S. N. (1996). The Rise of Christian Democracy in Europe. Cornell University Press.
• Kaplan, M. A. (1999). Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany. Oxford University Press.
• Kastoryano, R. (2004). Religion and incorporation: Islam in France and Germany. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1234-1255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00234.x.
• Kaunert, C., Léonard, S., & Pawlak, P. (Eds.). (2012). European Homeland Security: A European Strategy in the Making? (Vol. 94). 1-15, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203122457.
• Kaya, A. (2009). Islam, Migration and Integration: The Age of Securitization. Springer.
• Kershaw, I. (2000). Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris. WW Norton & Company.
• Kidd, B.J. (1933). The Counter-Reformation: 1550-1600. Methuen.
• Klopp, B. (2002). German Multiculturalism: Immigrant Integration and the Transformation of Citizenship. Greenwood Publishing Group.
• Koehler, J. O. (2008). STASI: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police. Basic Books.
• Koopmans, R. (Ed.). (2005). Contested Citizenship: Immigration and Cultural Diversity in Europe (Vol. 25). University of Minnesota Press.
• Korkut, L. (2017). Başlangıç Kısımlarının Hukuki Etkisi, Temel Nitelikleri ve 1982 Anayasası: Karşılaştırmalı Bir Analiz. İstanbul Medipol Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(2), 43-82.
• Kurnaz, A., & Alsancak, F. (2022). Avrupa’da İslam Karşıtlığına Güncel Bakış. Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 15(92), 161-182. https://doi.org/10.29228/JASSS.66010.
• Küng, H. (1980). Does God Exist?: An Answer For Today. Doubleday.
• Küpper, J., Hempfer, K. W., & Fischer-Lichte, E. (Eds.). (2014). Religion and Society in the 21st Century. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110254372.
• Laqueur, W. (2017). Young Germany: History of the German Youth Movement. Routledge.
• Lawrence, C. H. (2015). Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315715667.
• Levison, W. (1946). England and the Continent in the Eighth Century. Clarendon Press.
• MacCulloch, D. (2003). The Early Reformation on the Continent. By Owen Chadwick.(Oxford History of the Christian Church.) The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 54(1), 97-194.
• MacCulloch, D. (2004). Reformation: Europe’s House Divided 1490-1700. Penguin UK.
• MacCulloch, D. (2005). The Reformation. Penguin.
• Marsh, P. 1978. The Discipline of Popular Government. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• Marx, K., & Engels, F. (2002). Communist Manifesto. (GS Jones, Trans.) New York. NY: Penguin Classics.
• Mazower, M. (2009). Hitler’s Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe. Penguin.
• McGrath, A. E. (2011). Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough. John Wiley & Sons.
• Merkel, W. (2009). Systemtransformation. Springer-Verlag.
• Merrill, J.C. (1983). Global Journalism: A Survey of the World’s Mass Media. Longman.
• Minkenberg, M. (2002). Religion and Public Policy: Institutional, Cultural, and Political İmpact on the Shaping of Abortion Policies in Western Democracies. Comparative Political Studies, 35(2), 221-247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414002035002004.
• Minkenberg, M. (2013). From Pariah to Policy-maker? The Radical Right in Europe, West and East: Between
• Margin and Mainstream. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 21(1), 5-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2013.766473.
• Mitchell, M. (2021). Imperfect Interconfessionalism. Germany and the Confessional Divide: Religious Tensions and Political Culture, 1871-1989. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781800730885-010.
• Mudde, C. (2000). The Ideology of the Extreme Right. Manchester University Press.
• Mushaben, J. M. (2022). The Politics of Small Steps: Angela Merkel’s Transformative Impact on Germany and the European Union. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 60, 38-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.13408.
• Nielsen, J., & Otterbeck, J. (2015). Muslims in western Europe. Edinburgh University Press.
• Nipperdey, T. (1996). Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck. Princeton University Press.
• Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2011). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-13213-2_98.
• Oberman, H. A. (2006). Luther: Man between God and the Devil. Yale University Press.
• O’Malley, J. W. (1993). The First Jesuits. Harvard University Press.
• O’Malley, J. W. (2012). Trent: What Happened at the Council. Harvard University Press.
• Ozment, S. (2020). The Age of Reform, 1250-1550: An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval and Reformation Europe. Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300256185.
• Padgett, S. & Paterson, W.E. (1991). A History of Social Democracy in Postwar Europe. Longman.
• Parker, G. (1984). The Thirty Years’ War. Routledge.
• Paterson, W., & Thomas, A. 1977. Social Democratic Parties in Western Europe. London: Croom Helm.
• Pence, K., & Betts, P. (Eds.). (2008). Socialist Modern: East German Everyday Culture and Politics. University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.217730.
• Phayer, M. (2002). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930-1965. Pro Ecclesia, 11(1), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/106385120201100116.
• Pollack, D. (2008). Religious change in Europe: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Findings. Social Compass, 55(2), 168-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768607089737.
• Potter, G. R. (1979). Zwingli and the Book of Psalms. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 43-50.
• Pridham, G. (2014). Christian Democracy in Western Germany (RLE: German Politics): The CDU/CSU in Government and Opposition, 1945-1976. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315726960-19.
• Prizel, I. (1998). National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine (Vol. 103). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511582929.
• Ramet, S. P. (Ed.). (1989). Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics. Duke University Press.
• Reuter, T. (2014). Germany in the Early Middle Ages c. 800-1056. Routledge.
• Robbers, G. (Ed.). (2019). State and Church in the European Union. Nomos Verlag.
• Robinson, I. S. (2013). The Papal Reform of the Eleventh Century: Lives of Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII. In The Papal Reform of the Eleventh Century. Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526112668.
• Roper, L. (2016). Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet. Random House.
• Rosenow-Williams, K. (2012). Organizing Muslims and integrating Islam in Germany: New developments in the 21st century (Vol. 12). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004234475.
• Russell, J. C. (1990). The Germanization of Early Medieval Christianity. Fordham University.
• Schiffauer, W. (2006). Enemies within the Gates. Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach, 94-116.
• Schmidt, M. G. (2008). Germany: The Grand Coalition State. In Comparative European Politics (pp. 68-103). Routledge.
• Schreiner, P. (Ed.). (2018). Are You READY?: Diversity and Religious Education Across Europe-The Story of the READY Project. Waxmann Verlag.
• Scribner, R. W. (2017). German Reformation. Bloomsbury Publishing.
• Scott, T. (2016). The Early Reformation in Germany: Between Secular Impact and Radical Vision. Routledge.
• Sivan, H. (1997). The Goths: Heather, Peter: Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 358 pp., Publication Date: December 1996. History: Reviews of New Books, 25(4), 177-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/03612759.1997.9952913.
• Smith, G. (1989). Politics in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. CQ Press.
• Smith, G. (2009). The Last Years of East Germany. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
• Smith, M. E. (2017). Europe’s Common Security and Defence Policy. Cambridge University Press.
• Sperber, J. (1997). The Kaiser’s Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511583087.
• Spicer, A.  (2009). Calvinist Churches in Early Modern Europe. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 60(3), 608- 609.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. (2021). Muslim Life in Germany.
• Stayer, J. M. (1991). The German Peasants’ War and Anabaptist Community of Goods (Vol. 6). McGill-Queen’s Press-MQUP. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773562950.
• Stegmueller, D., Scheepers, P., Roßteutscher, S., & De Jong, E. (2012). Support for Redistribution in Western Europe: Assessing the Role of Religion. European Sociological Review, 28(4), 482-497. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcr011.
• Steigmann-Gall, R. (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919-1945. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511818103.
• Stepan, A. (2000). Religion, Democracy, and the “Twin Tolerations”. J. Democracy, 11(4), 37-57. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2000.0088.
• Strauss, G. (1978). Luther’s House of Learning: Indoctrination of the Young in the German Reformation. The John Hopkins University Press.
• Tibi, B. (2007). The Totalitarianism of Jihadist Islamism and Its Challenge to Europe and to Islam. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 8(1), 35-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/14690760601121630.
• Tischner, J. (1984). The Spirit of Solidarity, translated by Marek B. Zaleski and Benjamin Fiore, SJ San Francisco: Harper and Row, 4.
• Troeltsch, E. (2017). Protestantism and Progress: A Historical Study of the Relation of Protestantism to the Modern World. Routledge.
• Tröhler, D., Popkewitz, T. S., & Labaree, D. F. (Eds.). (2011). Schooling and the Making of Citizens in the Long Nineteenth Century: Comparative Visions. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203818053.
• Van Kersbergen, K. (2003). Social Capitalism: A study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511626784.001.
• Van Kersbergen, K., & Manow, P. (Eds.). (2009). Religion, Class Coalitions, and Welfare States. Cambridge University Press.
• Whaley, J. (2012). Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493-1648 (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198731016.003.0002.
• Wehler, H. U. (1985). The German Empire 1871-1918.
• White, J. B. (1997). Turks in the new Germany. American Anthropologist, 99(4), 754-769. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1997.99.4.754.
• Wiliarty, S. E. (2010). The CDU and the Politics of Gender in Germany: Bringing Women to the Party. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511779442.
• Wilson, P. H. (2016). Heart of Europe: A history of the Holy Roman Empire. Harvard University Press.
• Wilson, P. H. (2016). The Holy Roman Empire: A Thousand Years of Europe’s History. Penguin UK.
• Winkler, H. A. (2007). Germany: the Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933-1990. OUP Oxford.
• Wolfart, J. C. (2018). Increasing Religious Diversity: Historiographical Criticism of a Current Paradigm. Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, 21(4), 63-87. https://doi.org/10.1525/nr.2018.21.4.63
• Wolfe, J., Adams, N., Pattison, G., & Ward, G. (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Theology and Modern European Thought. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199601998.013.0013.
• Wolfram, H. (1988). History of the Goths. University of California Press.
• Wylie, J. H. (1896). History of England under Henry the Fourth (Vol. 3). Longmans, Green.