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Beyaz Failin Hatırladığı Kadar: Ruanda Soykırım Filmlerinde Kefaretle Protez Hafıza İnşası

Year 2022, Volume: 9 Issue: 2, 763 - 782, 22.07.2022
https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.1121529

Abstract

Dünyada soğuk savaş sonrası devletlerin bölgesel hâkimiyet mücadeleleri ve çıkan iç savaşlar çoğu zaman etnik temizliğe evrilmekteydi. Afrika’nın tarihsel süreç içerisinde pek çok farklı sömürgeci devletin egemenliği altında bulunan Ruanda, 1990 sonrasında iç savaş ve sonrasında soykırım süreci itibariyle soğuk savaş sonrası uluslararası hegemonyanın yeni bir el değiştirme sürecine tanıklık etti. Yönetmenler, Ruanda’da yaşanan katliamlar sonrasında ülkeyi hem tematik hem de mekân olarak dev bir film platosuna dönüştürdü. Ruandalı yönetmenlerin olmadığı bu evrende ülkedeki soykırım girişimlerine ilişkin tanıklık Batılı yönetmenler üzerinden gerçekleştirilmektedir. Ruanda’da yaşananlar Hutu ve Tutsilere destek veren ve vermeyenler olarak ayrımlanırken soykırım girişimi uluslararası güçlerin birbirini suçladıkları ve kendilerini akladıkları bir kefaret zemininde anlatılmaktadır. Hotel Rwanda (Terry George, 2004), Shooting Dogs (Michael Caton-Jones, 2005), Sometimes in April (Raoul Peck, 2005), A Sunday in Kigali (Robert Favreau, 2006) ve Shake Hands with the Devil (Peter Raymont, 2007) filmlerini yapısalcı bir yaklaşımla çözümlemeyi amaçlayan bu çalışmada, filmlerin üstlendiği protez hafıza kavramıyla ilişkili olarak kefaret, beyaz fail, arınma gibi kavramlar tartışılacaktır. Ruanda filmlerinde kefaretin anlatıda merkezde olduğu, Batılı kathartik bir unsuru olarak işlediği görülmektedir.

References

  • Adebajo, A. (2014). The Curse of Berlin: Africa After the Cold War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Adorno, T. (2007). Aesthetics and Politics . NY: Verso.
  • Ahmad, A. (1992). In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Londra: Verso.
  • André, C. (2018). Phrenology and the Rwandan Genocide. Neuro-Psiquiatr, 4(76), 277-282.
  • Barnett, M. (2002). Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda. NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Barthes, R. (2009). Göstergebilimsel Serüven. (M. Rifat, & S. Rifat, Çev.) İstanbul: YKY.
  • Bauer, Y. (2002). Soykırımı Yeniden Düşünmek. (O. Yakın, Çev.) Ankara: Phoenix Yayınevi.
  • Bennett, W. H. (1911). Ham. H. Chisholm içinde, Encyclopædia Britannica. (Cilt 12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Berry, J., & Berry, C. (1999). Genocide in Rwanda : a collective memory. Washington, D.C: Howard University Press.
  • Bloomfield, S. (2007, Ağustos 30). Welcome to Hillywood: how Rwanda's film industry emerged from genocide's shadow. https://www.independent.co.uk/: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/welcome-to-hillywood-how-rwanda-s-film-industry-emerged-from-genocide-s-shadow-463541.html adresinden alındı
  • Brakel, R. v., & Van Kerckhoven, X. (2016). The emergence of the identity card in Belgium and its colonies. K. Boersma, R. van Brakel, C. Fonio, & P. Wagena içinde, Histories of State Surveillance in Europe and Beyond (s. 170-185). Londra: Routledge.
  • Brands, H. (2016). Making the Unipolar Moment: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Rise of the Post-Cold War Order. NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Chaudhuri, S. (2014). Cinema of the Dark Side: Atrocity and the Ethics of Film Spectatorship. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press.
  • Childers, J., & Hentzi, G. (1995). The Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Cieplak, P. (2017). Death, image, memory: the genocide in Rwanda and its aftermath in photography and documentary film . Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Edwards, M. (2018). The Rwandan Genocide on Film: Critical Essays and Interviews. Jefferson: McFarland.
  • Eltringham, N. (2013). Framing Africa, Portrayals of a Continent in Contemporary Mainstream Cinema. NY: Berghahn Books.
  • Fanon, F. (2015). Siyah Deri Beyaz Maske. (C. Koytak, Çev.) İstanbul: Versus.
  • Freud, S. (2016). Sanat ve Edebiyat. (A. T. Kapkın, & E. Kapkın, Çev.) İstanbul: Payel.
  • Harelimana, F. (1997). Rwanda; Society and Culture of a Nation in Transition . Harelimana .
  • Hatzfeld, J. (2006). Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak. Londra: Picador.
  • Hoetink, H. (1967). The two variants in Caribbean race relations: A ontribution to the sociology of segmented societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Jameson, F. (1986). Third World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capitalism. Social Text(15), 65-88.
  • Kavlak, A. (2019). Hıristiyanlıkta İncil Yorumlarının Tarihsel Kaynakları. Kaygı, 1(18), 240-256.
  • Landsberg, A. (2004). Prosthetic memory: the transformation of American remembrance in the age of mass culture. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Levi-Strauss, C. (1986). Mit ve Anlam. (Ş. Süer, & S. Erkanlı, Çev.) İstanbul: Alan Yayıncılık.
  • Mamdani, M. (2002). When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Melvern, L. (2000). A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide. 1976: Zed Books.
  • Moran, B. (1981). Edebiyat Kuramları ve Eleştiri. İstanbul: Cem Yayınları.
  • O'Keeffe, A. (2006, Mart 19). The Guardian. Anger at BBC genocide film: https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/mar/19/media.film adresinden alındı
  • Petrić, V. (1995). Vertov, lenin, and perestroika: the cinematic. Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 1(15), 3-17.
  • Poole, R. (2008). Memory, history and the claims of the past. Memory Studies, 2(1), 149-196.
  • Prunier, G. (1997). The Rwanda Crisis- History of a Genocide. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Randall, W. L. (2014). Bizi “Biz” Yapan Hikâyeler. (Ş. S. Kaya, Çev.) İstanbul: Ayrıntı.
  • Ricoeur, P. (2012). Hafıza, Tarih, Unutuş. (M. E. Özcan, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis.
  • Rousso, H. (2002). The Haunting Past: History, Memory, and Justice in Contemporary France. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Scholz, A. (2015). Hutu, Tutsi, and the Germans: Racial Cognition in Rwanda under German Colonial Rule. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Leiden: Leiden University MA African Studies.
  • Shakespeare, W. (2019). Fırtına. (Ö. Nutku, Çev.) İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları.
  • Sözen, M. F. (2013). Yapısalcı Yöntem ve Bir Film Çözümlemesi. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 6(8), 609-624.
  • Sutton, D., & Jones, D.-M. (2014). Yeni Bir Bakışla Deleuze. (M. Özbenk, Çev.) İstanbul: Kolektif.
  • Swaan, A. D. (2015). Killing Compartments; the Mentality of Mass Murder. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Traverso, E. (2020). Geçmişi Kullanma Kılavuzu Tarih, Bellek, Politika. (I. Ergüden, Çev.) İstanbul: İletişim.
  • Uvin, P. (1998). Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
  • White, K. (2009). Scourge of Racism: Genocide in Rwanda. Journal of Black Studies, 39 (3), 471-481.
  • Wilson, K. M., & Crowder-Taraborrelli, T. (2012). Film and Genocide. Wisconsin : The University of Wisconsin Press.

As White Perpetrator Remembers: Prosthetic Memory Construction with Redemption in Rwandan Genocide Films

Year 2022, Volume: 9 Issue: 2, 763 - 782, 22.07.2022
https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.1121529

Abstract

The regional dominance struggles of the states after the cold war and the civil wars that broke out in the world often evolved into ethnic cleansing. Rwanda, which has been under the domination of many different colonial Powers in the historical process of Africa, is witnessing a new process of changing hands of international hegemony after the cold war as a result of the civil war and the genocide process after 1990. After the massacres in Rwanda, the directors transformed the country into a huge film plateau, both thematically and spatially. In this universe where there are no Rwandan directors, the testimony of the genocide attempts in the country is carried out through Western film directors. While the events in Rwanda are divided into those who support Hutu and Tutsi and those who do not, the genocide attempt is told on the basis of redemption where international powers accuse each other and acquit themselves. Hotel Rwanda (Terry George, 2004), Shooting Dogs (Michael Caton-Jones, 2005), Sometimes in April (Raoul Peck ,2005), Un dimanche à Kigali/ A Sunday in Kigali (Robert Favreau, 2006) and Shake Hands with the Devil (Peter Raymont, 2007) films with a structuralist approach, concepts such as redemption, white agent, and purification in relation to the concept of prosthetic memory undertaken by the films will also be discussed. It is seen that redemption is at the center of the narrative in Rwandan films, and it functions as a cathartic element of the Western perpetrator.

References

  • Adebajo, A. (2014). The Curse of Berlin: Africa After the Cold War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Adorno, T. (2007). Aesthetics and Politics . NY: Verso.
  • Ahmad, A. (1992). In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Londra: Verso.
  • André, C. (2018). Phrenology and the Rwandan Genocide. Neuro-Psiquiatr, 4(76), 277-282.
  • Barnett, M. (2002). Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda. NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Barthes, R. (2009). Göstergebilimsel Serüven. (M. Rifat, & S. Rifat, Çev.) İstanbul: YKY.
  • Bauer, Y. (2002). Soykırımı Yeniden Düşünmek. (O. Yakın, Çev.) Ankara: Phoenix Yayınevi.
  • Bennett, W. H. (1911). Ham. H. Chisholm içinde, Encyclopædia Britannica. (Cilt 12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Berry, J., & Berry, C. (1999). Genocide in Rwanda : a collective memory. Washington, D.C: Howard University Press.
  • Bloomfield, S. (2007, Ağustos 30). Welcome to Hillywood: how Rwanda's film industry emerged from genocide's shadow. https://www.independent.co.uk/: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/welcome-to-hillywood-how-rwanda-s-film-industry-emerged-from-genocide-s-shadow-463541.html adresinden alındı
  • Brakel, R. v., & Van Kerckhoven, X. (2016). The emergence of the identity card in Belgium and its colonies. K. Boersma, R. van Brakel, C. Fonio, & P. Wagena içinde, Histories of State Surveillance in Europe and Beyond (s. 170-185). Londra: Routledge.
  • Brands, H. (2016). Making the Unipolar Moment: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Rise of the Post-Cold War Order. NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Chaudhuri, S. (2014). Cinema of the Dark Side: Atrocity and the Ethics of Film Spectatorship. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press.
  • Childers, J., & Hentzi, G. (1995). The Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Cieplak, P. (2017). Death, image, memory: the genocide in Rwanda and its aftermath in photography and documentary film . Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Edwards, M. (2018). The Rwandan Genocide on Film: Critical Essays and Interviews. Jefferson: McFarland.
  • Eltringham, N. (2013). Framing Africa, Portrayals of a Continent in Contemporary Mainstream Cinema. NY: Berghahn Books.
  • Fanon, F. (2015). Siyah Deri Beyaz Maske. (C. Koytak, Çev.) İstanbul: Versus.
  • Freud, S. (2016). Sanat ve Edebiyat. (A. T. Kapkın, & E. Kapkın, Çev.) İstanbul: Payel.
  • Harelimana, F. (1997). Rwanda; Society and Culture of a Nation in Transition . Harelimana .
  • Hatzfeld, J. (2006). Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak. Londra: Picador.
  • Hoetink, H. (1967). The two variants in Caribbean race relations: A ontribution to the sociology of segmented societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Jameson, F. (1986). Third World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capitalism. Social Text(15), 65-88.
  • Kavlak, A. (2019). Hıristiyanlıkta İncil Yorumlarının Tarihsel Kaynakları. Kaygı, 1(18), 240-256.
  • Landsberg, A. (2004). Prosthetic memory: the transformation of American remembrance in the age of mass culture. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Levi-Strauss, C. (1986). Mit ve Anlam. (Ş. Süer, & S. Erkanlı, Çev.) İstanbul: Alan Yayıncılık.
  • Mamdani, M. (2002). When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Melvern, L. (2000). A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide. 1976: Zed Books.
  • Moran, B. (1981). Edebiyat Kuramları ve Eleştiri. İstanbul: Cem Yayınları.
  • O'Keeffe, A. (2006, Mart 19). The Guardian. Anger at BBC genocide film: https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/mar/19/media.film adresinden alındı
  • Petrić, V. (1995). Vertov, lenin, and perestroika: the cinematic. Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 1(15), 3-17.
  • Poole, R. (2008). Memory, history and the claims of the past. Memory Studies, 2(1), 149-196.
  • Prunier, G. (1997). The Rwanda Crisis- History of a Genocide. NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Randall, W. L. (2014). Bizi “Biz” Yapan Hikâyeler. (Ş. S. Kaya, Çev.) İstanbul: Ayrıntı.
  • Ricoeur, P. (2012). Hafıza, Tarih, Unutuş. (M. E. Özcan, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis.
  • Rousso, H. (2002). The Haunting Past: History, Memory, and Justice in Contemporary France. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Scholz, A. (2015). Hutu, Tutsi, and the Germans: Racial Cognition in Rwanda under German Colonial Rule. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Leiden: Leiden University MA African Studies.
  • Shakespeare, W. (2019). Fırtına. (Ö. Nutku, Çev.) İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları.
  • Sözen, M. F. (2013). Yapısalcı Yöntem ve Bir Film Çözümlemesi. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 6(8), 609-624.
  • Sutton, D., & Jones, D.-M. (2014). Yeni Bir Bakışla Deleuze. (M. Özbenk, Çev.) İstanbul: Kolektif.
  • Swaan, A. D. (2015). Killing Compartments; the Mentality of Mass Murder. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Traverso, E. (2020). Geçmişi Kullanma Kılavuzu Tarih, Bellek, Politika. (I. Ergüden, Çev.) İstanbul: İletişim.
  • Uvin, P. (1998). Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
  • White, K. (2009). Scourge of Racism: Genocide in Rwanda. Journal of Black Studies, 39 (3), 471-481.
  • Wilson, K. M., & Crowder-Taraborrelli, T. (2012). Film and Genocide. Wisconsin : The University of Wisconsin Press.
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Radio-Television
Journal Section Türkçe Araştırma Makaleleri
Authors

Yusuf Ziya Gökçek 0000-0002-8585-7331

Publication Date July 22, 2022
Submission Date May 25, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 9 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Gökçek, Y. Z. (2022). Beyaz Failin Hatırladığı Kadar: Ruanda Soykırım Filmlerinde Kefaretle Protez Hafıza İnşası. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 9(2), 763-782. https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.1121529