Temporal changes in water quality in Leh Ladakh region: Impact of urbanization

Year 2024, Volume: 7 Issue: 4, 637 - 664, 31.12.2024

Gh Ali Mukesh Chaudharı Priyanka Shah Pranav Shrivastav

https://doi.org/10.35208/ert.1431710

Abstract

Water is a valuable and limited resource in semi-arid regions like Ladakh. Effective management and conservation of water are crucial to prevent negative consequences on the area's quality of life. Since becoming a Union territory, Leh, a district of Ladakh, has undergone rapid urbanization due to its administrative status, air service facilities, tourism, and increasing population. However, this urbanization and tourism boom have resulted in a higher demand for water and a decline in its quality. Glacial-fed water is the primary source for drinking and agriculture in Ladakh. As Ladakh has become a popular tourist destination, the distribution and quality of water have been negatively affected. Construction of hotels and guest houses on agricultural lands, could further harm Ladakh's fragile ecological environment. Due to the challenging terrain and harsh conditions, there has been limited research on water quality in the region andare confined to the Leh district only. Despite lack of comprehensive information, this review aims to address three important questions: the hydrochemistry of water resources, the impact of urbanization on water quality, and the existing research gap in hydrochemistry in significant areas and water resources. The objective is to establish fundamental data for future research and contribute to a better understanding of water resources in the region.

Keywords

Corrosivity ratio, glacier melts, groundwater, hydrochemical facies, Indus River, Leh Ladakh, residual sodium carbonate, sodium adsorption ratio, urbanization

Ethical Statement

There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.

Supporting Institution

Gujarat University and University of Ladakh

Thanks

The authors gratefully acknowledge Department of Chemistry, Gujarat University and University of Ladakh for supporting this work.

References

• World Cities Report. (2022). “Envisaging the Future of Cities”, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/ 2022/06/ wcr_2022.pdf Accessed on May 15, 2023.
• The Hindu (2022, June 30). “India’s urban population to stand at 675 million in 2035, behind China’s 1 billion: U.N.” https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indias-urban-population-to-stand-at-675-million-in-2035-behind-chinas-1-billion-un/article 65584707.
• C. A. Almeida, S. Quintar, P. González, and M. A. Mallea, “Influence of urbanization and tourist activities on the water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis – Argentina),” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 133(1), pp. 459–465, 2007. [CrossRef]
• A. Kirch, “Impact of Tourism and Urbanization on Water Supply and Water Quality in Manali, Northern India,” Canadian Water Resources Journal, Vol. 27(4), pp. 383–400, 2002. [CrossRef]
• L. Liang, Z. Wang, and J. Li, “The effect of urbanization on environmental pollution in rapidly developing urban agglomerations,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 237, Article 117649, 2019. [CrossRef]
• B. Sarker, K. N. Keya, F. Mahir, K. Nahiun, S. Shahida, and R. Khan, “Scientific Review Surface and Ground Water Pollution: Causes and Effects of Urbanization and Industrialization in South Asia,” Scientific Review, Vol. 7, pp. 32–41, 2021. [CrossRef]
• S. K. Goodall, “Rural-to-urban Migration and Urbanization in Leh, Ladakh: A Case Study of Three Nomadic Pastoral Communities,” Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 24(3), pp. 220–227, 2004. [CrossRef]
• I. Rashid, and S. A. Romshoo, “Impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality of Lidder River in Kashmir Himalayas,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 185(6), pp. 4705–4719, 2013. [CrossRef]
• P. P. Mthembu, V. Elumalai, P. Li, S. Uthandi, N. Rajmohan, and S. Chidambaram, “Integration of Heavy Metal Pollution Indices and Health Risk Assessment of Groundwater in Semi-arid Coastal Aquifers, South Africa,” Exposure and Health, Vol. 14(2), pp. 487–502, 2022. [CrossRef]
• S. Tuladhar, A. Hussain, S. Baig, A. Ali, M. Soheb, T. Angchuk, A. P. Dimri, and A. B. Shrestha, “Climate change, water and agriculture linkages in the upper Indus basin: A field study from Gilgit-Baltistan and Leh-Ladakh,” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, Vol. 6, Article 1012363, 2023. [CrossRef]
• M. Aminu, A.-N. Matori, K. W. Yusof, A. Malakahmad, and R. B. Zainol, “A GIS-based water quality model for sustainable tourism planning of Bertam River in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia,” Environmental Earth Sciences, Vol. 73(10), pp. 6525–6537, 2015. [CrossRef]
• B. Harrison, “The Impact of a Tourism Boom in an Environmentally-Sensitive Region: A Case Study of Ladakh (Kashmir, India),” Japanese Journal of Policy and Culture, Vol. 29, pp. 21–41, 2021. [CrossRef]
• K. Dolma and M. S. Rishi, “Baseline study of drinking water quality? A case of Leh Town, Ladakh (J&K), India,” Journal of Waste Water Treatment & Analysis, Vol. 06(01), 2015. [CrossRef]
• J. Müller, J. Dame, and M. Nüsser, “Urban Mountain Waterscapes: The Transformation of Hydro-Social Relations in the Trans-Himalayan Town Leh, Ladakh, India,” Water, Vol. 12(6), Article 1698, 2020. [CrossRef]
• J. Qian, D. Feng, and H. Zhu, “Tourism-driven urbanization in China’s small town development: A case study of Zhapo Town, 1986–2003,” Habitat International, Vol. 36(1), pp. 152–160, 2012. [CrossRef]
• B. Ballabh, and O. P. Chaurasia, “Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh—Used in treatment of cold, cough and fever,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 112(2), pp. 341–349, 2007. [CrossRef]
• B. Gopal, M. Chauhan, and D. P. Zutshi, “High altitude lakes of Ladakh: changes since the Yale North India expedition,” SIL Proceedings, 1922-2010, Vol. 28(2), pp. 519–523, 2002. [CrossRef]
• S. K. Rai, “Geochemical constituents in hot spring waters in the Third Pole,” in Water Quality in the Third Pole, Elsevier, pp. 211–235, 2020. [CrossRef]
• T. Ahmad, P. P. Khanna, G. J. Chakrapani, and S. Balakrishnan, “Geochemical characteristics of water and sediment of the Indus river, Trans-Himalaya, India: constraints on weathering and erosion,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 16(2–3), pp. 333–346, 1998. [CrossRef]
• K. Dolma, M. S. Rishi, and R. Lata, “State of groundwater resource: relationship between its depth and sewage contamination in Leh town of Union Territory of Ladakh,” Applied Water Science, Vol. 10(3), p. 78, 2020. [CrossRef]
• A. K. Taloor, B. S. Kotlia, and K. Kumar, Eds., Water, Cryosphere, and Climate Change in the Himalayas: A Geospatial Approach. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. [CrossRef]
• N. X. Thanh, T. Itaya, T. Ahmad, S. Kojima, T. Ohtani, and M. Ehiro, “Mineral chemistry and K–Ar ages of plutons across the Karakoram fault in the Shyok-Nubra confluence of northern Ladakh Himalaya, India,” Gondwana Research, Vol. 17(1), pp. 180–188, 2010. [CrossRef]
• I. M. Bhat, H. Chauhan, R. A. Dar, and T. Ahmad, “Ladakh Himalayan Ophiolites (LHO): A Geological Heritage of Northwestern India,” Geoheritage, Vol. 15(1), Article 2, 2023. [CrossRef]
• S. A. Lone, G. Jeelani, A. Mukherjee, and P. Coomar, “Geogenic groundwater arsenic in high altitude bedrock aquifers of upper Indus river basin (UIRB), Ladakh,” Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 113, Article 104497, 2020. [CrossRef]
• M. A. Bhat, S. Xu, D. Fan, T. Dar, and S.-L. Li, “Chemical weathering processes impacted by pyrite oxidation in the upper Indus River basin, Western Himalaya,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 245, Article 105573, 2023. [CrossRef]
• S. A. Lone, G. Jeelani, R. D. Deshpande, A. Mukherjee, S. Jasechko, and A. Lone, “Meltwaters dominate groundwater recharge in cold arid desert of Upper Indus River Basin (UIRB), western Himalayas,” Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 786, Article 147514, 2021. [CrossRef]
• H. Sun, J. Han, D. Li, S. Zhang, and X. Lu, “Chemical weathering inferred from riverine water chemistry in the lower Xijiang basin, South China,” The Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 408(20), pp. 4749–4760, 2010. [CrossRef]
• F. Zhang, F. U. Qaiser, C. Zeng, R. R. Pant, G. Wang, H. Zhang, and D. Chen, “Meltwater hydrochemistry at four glacial catchments in the headwater of Indus River,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 26(23), pp. 23645–23660, 2019. [CrossRef]
• G. Lilbæk, and J. W. Pomeroy, “Ion enrichment of snowmelt runoff water caused by basal ice formation,” Hydrological Processes, Vol. 22(15), pp. 2758–2766, 2008. [CrossRef]
• N. Priya, R. J. Thayyen, Al. Ramanathan, and V. B. Singh, “Hydrochemistry and dissolved solute load of meltwater in a catchment of a cold-arid trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh over an entire melting period,” Hydrology Research, Vol. 47(6), pp. 1224–1238, 2016. [CrossRef]
• W. L. Quinton, and J. W. Pomeroy, “Transformations of runoff chemistry in the Arctic tundra, Northwest Territories, Canada,” Hydrological Processes, Vol. 20(14), pp. 2901–2919, 2006. [CrossRef]
• F. Feng, Z. Li, S. Jin, Z. Dong, and F. Wang, “Hydrochemical characteristics and solute dynamics of meltwater runoff of Urumqi Glacier No.1, Eastern Tianshan, Northwest China,” Journal of Mountain Science, Vol. 9(4), pp. 472–482, 2012. [CrossRef]
• B. Bookhagen and D. W. Burbank, “Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, Vol. 115, Article F03019, 2010. [CrossRef]
• A. Chevuturi, A. P. Dimri, and R. J. Thayyen, “Climate change over Leh (Ladakh), India,” Theoretical and Applied Climatology, Vol. 131(1–2), pp. 531–545, 2018. [CrossRef]
• W. W. Immerzeel, F. Pellicciotti, and M. F. P. Bierkens, “Rising river flows throughout the twenty-first century in two Himalayan glacierized watersheds,” Nature Geoscience, Vol. 6(9), pp. 742745, 2013. [CrossRef]
• M. Nüsser, J. Dame, S. Parveen, B. Kraus, R. Baghel, and S. Schmidt, “Cryosphere-fed irrigation networks in the northwestern Himalaya: Precarious livelihoods and adaptation strategies under the impact of climate change,” Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 39(2), pp. R1–R11, 2019. [CrossRef]
• N. Wagle, M. P. Dhakal, and A. B. Shrestha, “Adaptation Strategies to Address Challenges of Traditional Agricultural Water Management in the Upper Indus Basin,” Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 41(3), 2021. [CrossRef]
• A. Giri, V. K. Bharti, S. Kalia, K. Kumar, T. Raj, and B. Kumar, “Utility of multivariate statistical analysis to identify factors contributing groundwater quality in High Altitude Region of Leh-Ladakh, India,” Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 14(4), pp. 61–75, 2017. [CrossRef]
• K. Pande, M. M. Sarin, J. R. Trivedi, S. Krishnaswami, and K. K. Sharma, “The Indus river system (India-Pakistan): Major-ion chemistry, uranium and strontium isotopes,” Chemical Geology, Vol. 116(3–4), pp. 245–259, 1994. [CrossRef]
• H. Kaushik, M. Soheb, K. Biswal, A. L. Ramanathan, O. Kumar, and A. K. Patel, “Understanding the hydrochemical functioning of glacierized catchments of the Upper Indus Basin in Ladakh, Indian Himalayas,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 30(8), pp. 20631–20649, 2022. [CrossRef]
• G. H. Brown, “Glacier meltwater hydrochemistry,” Applied Geochemistry, Vol. 17(7), pp. 855–883, 2002. [CrossRef]
• R. S. Hindshaw, E. T. Tipper, B. C. Reynolds, E. Lemarchand, J.G. Wiederhold, J. Magnusson, S. M. Bernasconi, R. Kretzschmar, and B. Bourdon, “Hydrological control of stream water chemistry in a glacial catchment (Damma Glacier, Switzerland),” Chemical Geology, Vol. 285(1–4), pp. 215–230, 2011. [CrossRef]
• T. Tsering, M. Sillanpää, M. Sillanpää, M. Viitala, and S.-P. Reinikainen, “Microplastics pollution in the Brahmaputra River and the Indus River of the Indian Himalaya,” Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 789, Article 147968, 2021. [CrossRef]
• Ü. Yıldırım, C. Güler, M. A. Kurt, and O. Güven, “Flow Rate and Water Quality of Deliçay (Mersin) from its Source to the Mediterranean Evaluation,” Journal of Gümüÿhane University Institute of Science and Technology, Vol. 10(4), 11211135, 2020. [CrossRef]
• M. A. Bhat, J. Zhong, and S.-L. Li, “Stable isotopes (δ18O and δD) of surface water, glacier, and groundwater across the upper Indus River basin (UIRB), Ladakh, Northwest Himalayas”, In 18th Annual Meeting of the Asia Oceania Geosciences Society: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the Asia Oceania Geosciences Society (AOGS 2021), pp. 7678, 2022. [CrossRef]
• O. Singh, and C.K. Jain, “Assessment of water quality and Eutrophication of Lakes,” Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, Vol. 2(Suppl), pp. 46–52, 2022. [CrossRef]
• S. K. Tiwari, S. K. Rai, S. K. Bartarya, A. K. Gupta, and M. Negi, “Stable isotopes (δ 13 C DIC , δD, δ 18 O) and geochemical characteristics of geothermal springs of Ladakh and Himachal (India): Evidence for CO2 discharge in northwest Himalaya,” Geothermics, Vol. 64, pp. 314–330, 2016. [CrossRef]
• A. Dutta, P. Mishra, A. Absar, V. P. Malviya, P. K. Singh, A. Srivastava, B. Ray, A. Kumar, and N. V. Nitnaware, “Tracing hydrothermal mineral thenardite in geysers/hot springs of North-western Himalayan belt, Ladakh Geothermal Province, India by hydrogeochemistry, fluid-mineral equilibria and isotopic studies,” Geochemistry, Article 125973, 2023. [CrossRef]
• J. Craig, A. Absar, G. Bhat, G. Cadel, M. Hafiz, N. Hakhoo, R. Kashkari, J. Moore, T. E. Ricchiuto, J. Thurow, and B. Thusu, “Hot springs and the geothermal energy potential of Jammu & Kashmir State, N.W. Himalaya, India,” Earth-Science Reviews, Vol. 126, pp. 156–177, 2013. [CrossRef]
• B. Moss, “Brackish and freshwater shallow lakes — different systems or variations on the same theme?,” in Nutrient Dynamics and Biological Structure in Shallow Freshwater and Brackish Lakes, E. Mortensen, E. Jeppesen, M. Søndergaard, and L. K. Nielsen, Eds. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1994, pp. 1–14. [CrossRef]
• O. Singh, S. P. Rai, V. Kumar, M. Sharma, and V. Choubey, “Water quality and eutrophication status of some lakes of the western Himalayan region,” Proceedings of Taal 2007: the 12th World Lake Conference, Vol. 286, pp. 286–291, 2008.
• F. A. Bhat, A. R. Yousuf, A. Bhat, A. Jehangir, M. Mahdi, and M. Balkhi, “Ecology and biodiversity in Pangong Tso (lake) and its inlet stream in Ladakh, India.,” International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, Vol. 3, pp. 501–511, 2011.
• R. Sarikhani, A. Ghassemi Dehnavi, Z. Ahmadnejad, and N. Kalantari, “Hydrochemical characteristics and groundwater quality assessment in Bushehr Province, SW Iran,” Environmental Earth Sciences, Vol. 74(7), pp. 6265–6281, 2015. [CrossRef]
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), Office of Research and Development (ORD), Centre for Public Health and Environmental Assessment (CPHEA), Washington, DC, Vol. 2: Sources, Stressors & Responses, 2015. https://www.epa.gov/caddis-vol2/ph Accessed on Apr 23, 2023.
• Y. Meride, and B. Ayenew, “Drinking water quality assessment and its effects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia,” Environmental Systems Research, Vol. 5(1), Article 1, 2016. [CrossRef]
• L. Chorol, and S. K. Gupta, “Evaluation of groundwater heavy metal pollution index through analytical hierarchy process and its health risk assessment via Monte Carlo simulation,” Process Safety and Environmental Protection, Vol. 170, pp. 855–864, 2023. [CrossRef]
• S. A. Lone, G. Jeelani, R. D. Deshpande, A. Mukherjee, S. Jasechko, and A. Lone, “Meltwaters dominate groundwater recharge in cold arid desert of Upper Indus River Basin (UIRB), western Himalayas,” Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 786, Article 147514, 2021. [CrossRef]
• M. Liu, Q. Guo, L. Luo, and T. He, “Environmental impacts of geothermal waters with extremely high boron concentrations: Insight from a case study in Tibet, China,” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Vol. 397, Article 106887, 2020. [CrossRef]
• G. Charan, V. K. Bharti, A. Giri, and P. Kumar, “Evaluation of physico-chemical and heavy metals status in irrigation, stagnant, and Indus River water at the trans-Himalayan region,” Discover Water, Vol. 3(1), Article 3, 2023. [CrossRef]
• J. Potapowicz, D. Szumińska, M. Szopińska, R. J. Bialik, K. Machowiak, S. Chmiel, and Ż. Polkowska, “Seashore sediment and water chemistry at the Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Maritime Antarctica) – Geochemical analysis and correlations between the concentrations of chemical species,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 152, Article 110888, 2020. [CrossRef]
• M. Meybeck, “Global Occurrence of Major Elements in Rivers,” in Treatise on Geochemistry, Elsevier, pp. 207–223, 2003. [CrossRef]
• V. K. Bharti, A. Giri, K. Kumar, Y.-H. Leong, A. S. M. Samin, and M. I. A. Majid, “Evaluation of physico-chemical parameters and minerals status of different water sources at high Altitude,” Annals of Environmental Science and Toxicology, Vol. 2(1), pp. 10–18, 2017.
• T. Ahmad, P. P. Khanna, G. J. Chakrapani, and S. Balakrishnan, “Geochemical characteristics of water and sediment of the Indus river, Trans-Himalaya, India: constraints on weathering and erosion,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 16(2–3), pp. 333–346, 1998. [CrossRef]
• A. K. Tiwari, A. K. Singh, B. Phartiyal, and A. Sharma, “Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the Indus river water system,” Chemistry and Ecology, Vol. 37(9–10), pp. 780–808, 2021. [CrossRef]
• A. Giri, V. K. Bharti, S. Kalia, K. Kumar, T. Raj, and O. P. Chaurasia, “Utility of multivariate statistical analysis to identify factors contributing river water quality in two different seasons in cold-arid high-altitude region of Leh-Ladakh, India,” Applied Water Science, Vol. 9(2), pp. 1–15, 2019. [CrossRef]
• W. C. Teng, K. L. Fong, D. Shenkar, J. A. Wilson, and D. C. Y. Foo, “Piper diagram – A novel visualisation tool for process design,” Chemical Engineering Research and Design, Vol. 112, pp. 132–145, 2016. [CrossRef]
• D. K. Chadha, “A proposed new diagram for geochemical classification of natural waters and interpretation of chemical data,” Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 7(5), pp. 431–439, 1999. [CrossRef]
• P. Saccon, “Water for agriculture, irrigation management,” Applied Soil Ecology, Vol. 123, pp. 793–796, 2018.
• M. A. M. Aslam, and S. S. Rizvi, “Hydrogeochemical characterisation and appraisal of groundwater suitability for domestic and irrigational purposes in a semi-arid region, Karnataka state, India,” Applied Water Science, Vol. 10(12), Article 237, 2020. [CrossRef]
• M. T. Sattari, A. Farkhondeh, and J. Patrick Abraham, “Estimation of sodium adsorption ratio indicator using data mining methods: a case study in Urmia Lake basin, Iran,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 25(5), pp. 4776–4786, 2018. [CrossRef]
• A. K. Haritash, S. Gaur, and S. Garg, “Assessment of water quality and suitability analysis of River Ganga in Rishikesh, India,” Applied Water Science, Vol. 6(4), pp. 383–392, 2016. [CrossRef]
• K. Brindha and L. Elango, “Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposes in Madhuranthakam, Tamil Nadu, India,” Earth Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 15(2), pp. 101–108, 2011.
• R. Sandup, “Demographic Profile of Union Territory of Ladakh | Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Studies,” 2020. https://al-kindipublisher.com/index.php/jhsss/article/view/278 Accessed on Feb 06, 2023.
• K. Dolma, M. S. Rishi, and R. Lata, “Evaluation of Groundwater Quality and its Suitability for Drinking Purposes – A Case of Leh Town, Ladakh (J&K), India,” International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research, Vol. 6(5), pp. 576590, 2015.
• “Market Research And Statistics | Ministry of Tourism | Government of India,” 2022. https://tourism.gov.in/market-research-and-statistics Accessed on Jan 31 2024.
• V. Pelliciardi, “Tourism traffic volumes in Leh district: an overview,” Ladakh Studies, pp. 14–23, 2010.
• Y. Liu, F. Li, R. Ayyamperumal, and W. Wang, “Pollution characteristics and Groundwater ion source analysis of the last 20 years in a semi-arid region of northwest China,” In Review, preprint, 2023. [CrossRef]
• A. Asmoay, A. Mohamed, F. Alshehri, N. Linh, N. Al-Ansari, and A. Othman, “Water quality assessment in dry regions using statistical methods,” Journal of King Saud University - Science, Vol. 35, Article 102665, 2023. [CrossRef]
• V. Gupta and I. Ahmed, “The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India,” Engineering Geology, Vol. 95(3), pp. 79–87, 2007. [CrossRef]
• “These two Indian destinations are among TIME magazine’s list of ‘World’s Greatest Places of 2023’ | Lifestyle News,The Indian Express,” https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/destination-of-the-week/time-magazine-greatest-places-2023-mayurbhanj-ladakh-8502548/ Accessed on May 06, 2023.
• K. A. Demertzi, D. M. Papamichail, P. E. Georgiou, D. N. Karamouzis, and V. G. Aschonitis, “Assessment of rural and highly seasonal tourist activity plus drought effects on reservoir operation in a semi-arid region of Greece using the WEAP model,” Water International, Vol. 39(1), pp. 23–34, 2014. [CrossRef]
• K. Luo, X. Hu, Q. He, Z. Wu, H. Cheng, Z. Hu, and A. Mazumder, “Impacts of rapid urbanization on the water quality and macroinvertebrate communities of streams: A case study in Liangjiang New Area, China,” Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 621, pp. 1601–1614, 2018. [CrossRef]
• Q. Zhang, P. Xu, and H. Qian, “Groundwater Quality Assessment Using Improved Water Quality Index (WQI) and Human Health Risk (HHR) Evaluation in a Semi-arid Region of Northwest China,” Exposure and Health, Vol. 12(3), pp. 487–500, 2020. [CrossRef]
• M. Bahir and S. Ouhamdouch, “Groundwater quality in semi-arid environments (Essaouira Basin, Morocco),” Carbonates and Evaporites, Vol. 35(2), Article 41, 2020. [CrossRef]
• B. Wen, X. Zhang, Z. Yang, H. Xiong, and Y. Qiu, “Influence of tourist disturbance on soil properties, plant communities, and surface water quality in the Tianchi scenic area of Xinjiang, China,” Journal of Arid Land, Vol. 8(2), pp. 304–313, 2016. [CrossRef]
• N. Adimalla, “Spatial distribution, exposure, and potential health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking water from semi-arid region of South India,” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, Vol. 26(2), pp. 310–334, 2020. [CrossRef]
• “UN-Habitat - For A Better Urban Future | UN-Habitat.” https://unhabitat.org/ Accessed on Jan 31, 2024.
• J. Dame, S. Schmidt, J. Müller, and M. Nüsser, “Urbanisation and socio-ecological challenges in high mountain towns: Insights from Leh (Ladakh), India,” Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 189, pp. 189–199, 2019. [CrossRef]
• M. S. Bhat, A. A. Khan, M. Akbar, and S. Mir, “Disaster-development interface and its impact on emerging vulnerability scenario in Ladakh region of northwestern Himalayas,” Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, Vol. 13(2), pp. 253–270, 2023. [CrossRef]
• L. A. Hajam, J. A. Rather, and F. A. Hajam, “Distribution and Patterns of Interstate Migrants in the UT of J&K and Ladakh, (India): A district level analysis,” Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, Vol. 22, Article 19, 2023.
• D. Gondhalekar, S. Nussbaum, A. Akhtar, and J. Kebschull, “Planning Under Uncertainty: Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Health Issues in Leh Town, Ladakh, India,” in Sustainable Water Use and Management: Examples of New Approaches and Perspectives, W. Leal Filho and V. Sümer, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 293–312, 2015. [CrossRef]
• F. Dar, A. Ramanathan, R. Mir, and R. A. Pir, “Groundwater scenario under climate change and anthropogenic stress in Ladakh Himalaya, India,” Journal of Water and Climate Change, Vol. 15(4), pp. 1459–1489, 2024. [CrossRef]
• Ü. Yıldırım, C. Güler, B. Önol, M. Rode, and S. Jomaa, “Modelling of the Discharge Response to Climate Change under RCP8.5 Scenario in the Alata River Basin (Mersin, SE Turkey),” Water, Vol. 13(4), Article 483, 2021. [CrossRef]
• O. Güven, C. Güler, M. A. Kurt, and Ü. Yıldırım, “Salinization Occurring in Tarsus Coastal Aquifer (Mersin) Investigating the Causes” Journal of Geological Engineering, Vol. 46(2), pp. 121138, 2023. [CrossRef]
• A. Hussain, S. Schmidt, and M. Nüsser, “Dynamics of Mountain Urbanisation: Evidence from the Trans-Himalayan Town of Kargil, Ladakh, India,” Land, Vol. 12(4), Article 920, 2023. [CrossRef]
• O. Singh, S. P. Rai, V. Kumar, M. K. Sharma, and V. K. Choubey, “Water Quality and Eutrophication Status of Some Lakes of the Western Himalayan Region (India),” 2008.
• K. B. Vijay, G. Arup, and K. Krishna, “Evaluation of Physico-Chemical Parameters and Minerals Status of Different Water Sources at High Altitude,” Annals of Environmental Science and Toxicology, Vol. 2(1), pp. 10–18, 2017. [CrossRef]
• H. Kaushik, M. Soheb, K. Biswal, A. L. Ramanathan, O. Kumar, and A. K. Patel, “Understanding the hydrochemical functioning of glacierized catchments of the Upper Indus Basin in Ladakh, Indian Himalayas,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 30(8), pp. 20631–20649, 2022. [CrossRef]
• A. K. Tiwari, A. K. Singh, B. Phartiyal, and A. Sharma, “Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the Indus river water system,” Chemistry and Ecology, Vol. 37(9–10), pp. 780–808, 2021. [CrossRef]
• S. K. Tiwari, S. K. Rai, S. K. Bartarya, A. K. Gupta, and M. Negi, “Stable isotopes (δ 13 C DIC , δD, δ 18 O) and geochemical characteristics of geothermal springs of Ladakh and Himachal (India): Evidence for CO2 discharge in northwest Himalaya,” Geothermics, Vol. 64, pp. 314–330, 2016. [CrossRef]
• A. Giri, V. K. Bharti, S. Kalia, K. Kumar, and M. Khansu, “Hydrochemical and quality assessment of irrigation water at the trans-himalayan high-altitude regions of Leh, Ladakh, India,” Applied Water Science, Vol. 12(8), Article 197, 2022. [CrossRef]
• J. Dame, S. Schmidt, J. Müller, and M. Nüsser, “Urbanisation and socio-ecological challenges in high mountain towns: Insights from Leh (Ladakh), India,” Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 189, pp. 189–199, 2019. [CrossRef]
• “Destination Master Plan, Strategy and Action Plan,Leh, UT Ladakh Submission Swadesh Darshan 2.0”, Administration of Union Territory of Ladakh, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, 2023. https://sd2.tourism.gov.in/ DocumentRepoFiles/ MasterPlan/MPa9850c6f-babb-45b0-838a-d65996ecd802.pdf Accessed on Sep 26, 2024.
• L. Chorol and S. K. Gupta, “Evaluation of groundwater heavy metal pollution index through analytical hierarchy process and its health risk assessment via Monte Carlo simulation,” Process Safety and Environmental Protection, Vol. 170, pp. 855–864, 2023. [CrossRef]
• S. A. Romshoo, K. O. Murtaza, W. Shah, T. Ramzan, U. Ameen, and M. H. Bhat, “Anthropogenic climate change drives melting of glaciers in the Himalaya,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 29(35), pp. 52732–52751, 2022. [CrossRef]