Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

Adaptation of Online Sexual Harassment Scale into Turkish: A Validity And Reliability Study

Year 2023, , 232 - 257, 27.06.2023

Erol Esen , Barışcan Öztürk , Adil Kaval

https://doi.org/10.46655/federgi.1143343

Abstract

The aim of this study is to adapt the Online Sexual Harassment Scale (OSHS) into Turkish and examine the validity and reliability of the Turkish form. The study also aims to examine whether university students’ exposure to online sexual harassment differs in terms of gender. Data obtained from 340 university students (221 women, 119 men). In order to determine the construct validity of the scale, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted. CFA results confirmed the two-factor structure (gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention) of the Turkish form like original scale. Fit indices obtained from CFA (χ2/df= 3.77; GFI= .91; SRMR= .045; CFI= .95; NFI= .93; IFI= .95; TLI= .94), pointed out that two-factor structure of Turkish form has an acceptable fit. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for unwanted sexual attention and gender harassment dimensions, and the whole scale were found to be .93, .83, and .94, respectively. When all these findings are evaluated as a whole, the Turkish form of the OSHS is a valid and reliable measurement tool that can be used to evaluate the level of exposure to online sexual harassment. Additionally, it is found that women OSHS scores were significantly higher than men in both sub-dimensions and the whole scale, in other words women were subjected to online sexual harassment (gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention) significantly more than men.

Keywords

sexual harassment scale adaptation validity reliability

References

  • Agustina, José Ramon. “Understanding Cyber Victimization: Digital Architectures and the Disinhibition Effect,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 9 no. 1 (2015): 35-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22239
  • Arafa, A. E., R. S. Elbahrawe, N. M. Saber, S. S. Ahmed ve A. M. Ahmed. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: A Cross-sectional Survey Over Female University Students in Upper Egypt,” International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health, 5 no. 1 (2018): 61-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20175763
  • Barak, Azy. “Sexual Harassment on the Internet,” Social Science Computer Review, 23 no. 1 (2005): 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
  • Bates, Samantha. “Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Qualitative Analysis of the Mental Health Effects of Revenge Porn on Female Survivors,” Feminist Criminology, 12 no. 1 (2017): 22-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085116654565
  • Baumgartner, Susanne E., Patti M. Valkenburg ve Jochen Peter. “Unwanted Online Sexual Solicitation and Risky Sexual Online Behavior across the Lifespan,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31 no. 6 (2010): 439-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.07.005
  • Basu, P., T. Singha Roy, S. Tiwari ve S. Mehta. “CyberPolice: Classification of Cyber Sexual Harassment.” In Progress in Artificial Intelligence: 20th EPIA Conference on Artificial Intelligence, edited by Goreti Marreiros, Francisco S. Melo, Nuno Lau, Henrique Lopes Cardoso, Luís Paulo Reis, 701-714. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86230-5
  • Beaton, D., C. Bombardier, F. Guillemin ve M. B. Ferraz. “Recommendations for the Cross-cultural Adaptation of the DASH & QuickDASH Outcome Measures,” Institute for Work & Health 1, no. 1 (2007): 1-45.
  • Branch, K., C. M. Hilinski-Rosick, E. Johnson ve G. Solano. “Revenge Porn Victimization of College Students in the United States: An Exploratory Analysis,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11 no. 1 (2017): 128–142. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495777
  • Brown, Timothy A. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford Publications, 2006.
  • Buchanan, Niall ve Adam Mahoney. “Development of a Scale Measuring Online Sexual Harassment: Examining Gender Differences and the Emotional Impact of Sexual Harassment Victimization Online,” Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27 no. 1 (2021): 63-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12197
  • Büyüköztürk, Şener. Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2007.
  • Choi, Kyung-shich, Seong-Sik Lee ve Jin R. Lee. “Mobile Phone Technology and Online Sexual Harassment Among Juveniles in South Korea: Effects of Self-control and Social Learning,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11 no. 1 (2017): 110-127. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495776
  • Chiodo, D., D. A. Wolfe, C. Crooks, R. Hughes ve P. Jaffe. “Impact of Sexual Harassment Victimization by Peers on Subsequent Adolescent Victimization and Adjustment: A longitudinal Study,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 45 no. 3 (2009): 246-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006
  • Cripps, Jenna ve Lana Stermac. “Cyber-sexual Violence and Negative Emotional States among Women in a Canadian University,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 12 no. 1 (2018): 171-186. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1467891
  • Cooper, Al. “Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the New Millennium,” CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1 no. 2 (1998): 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.187
  • Copp, Jennifer E., Elizabeth A. Mumford ve Bruce G. Taylor. “Online Sexual Harassment and Cyberbullying in a Nationally Representative Sample of Teens: Prevalence, Predictors, and Consequences,” Journal of Adolescence, 93 no. 1 (2021): 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.10.003
  • Cyber Civil Rights Initiative, Effects of Revenge Porn Survey 2014. http://www.endrevengeporn.org (Son erişim tarihi 24.12.2021).
  • Çapık, Cantürk, Sebahat Gözüm ve Seçil Aksayan. “Kültürlerarası Ölçek Uyarlama Aşamaları, Dil ve Kültür Uyarlaması: Güncellenmiş Rehber,” Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 26 no. 3 (2018): 199-210. https://doi.org/10.26650/FNJN397481
  • Doğan, Betül Önay, Yıldız Dilek Ertürk ve Pınar Aslan. “Facebook Kullanıcısı Kız Çocuklarına Yönelen Zorbalık Odaklı Siber Tacizin Cinsel Tacize Dönüşümü: Gazete Haberleri Üzerinden Betimsel Bir Değerlendirme,” Üsküdar Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi Etkileşim, 2 no. 1 (2018): 36-55. https://doi.org/10.32739/etkilesim.2018.2.27
  • Douglass, C. H., C. J. Wright, A. C. Davis ve M. S. Lim. “Correlates of in-person and Technology-Facilitated Sexual Harassment from an Online Survey among Young Australians,” Sexual Health, 15 no. 4 (2018): 361-365. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH17208
  • Dönmez, Yunus Emre. “Çocuk ve Ergen Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları Ergen Hasta Popülasyonunda Online Cinsel İstismar Sıklığı, İlişkili Risk Faktörleri ve Sonrasında Oluşabilecek Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu,” Yayımlanmış Tıpta Uzmanlık Tezi (Malatya: İnönü Üniversitesi, Türkiye, 2017).
  • Delziovo, C. R., C. C. Bolsoni, N. O. Nazário ve E. B. S. Coelho. “Characteristics of Sexual Violence Against Adolescent and Adult Women Reported by The Public Health Services in Santa Catarina State, Brazil,” Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 33 no. 6 (2017). e00002716-e00002716. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00002716
  • Dreßing, H., J. Bailer, A. Anders, H. Wagner ve C. Gallas. “Cyberstalking in a Large Sample of Social Network Users: Prevalence, Characteristics, and İmpact upon Victims,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17 no. 2 (2014): 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0231
  • Drouin, Michelle, Jody Ross ve Elizabeth Tobin. “Sexting: A New, Digital Vehicle for İntimate Partner Aggression?” Computers in Human Behavior, 50 no. 1 (2015): 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001
  • Durana, A., A. Lenhart, R. Miller, B. Schulte ve E. Weingarten. Sexual Harassment: A Severe and Pervasive Problem. Washington, DC: New America Foundation, 2018.
  • Finn, Jerry. “A Survey of Online Harassment at a University Campus,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19 no. 4 (2004): 468-483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503262083
  • Gámez-Guadix, M., C. Almendros, E. Borrajo ve E. Calvete. “Prevalence and Association of Sexting and Online Sexual Victimization Among Spanish Adults,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12 no. 2 (2015): 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9
  • Gruber, E. James ve Susan Fineran. “Comparing the Impact of Bullying and Sexual Harassment Victimization on the Mental and Physical Health of Adolescents,” Sex Roles, 59 no. 1 (2008): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9431-5
  • Guerra, C., C. Pinto-Cortez, E. Toro, E. Efthymiadou ve E. Quayle. “Online Sexual Harassment and Depression in Chilean Adolescents: Variations Based on Gender and Age of the Offenders,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 120 (2021): 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105219
  • Gumbus, Andra ve Patricia Meglich. “Abusive Online Conduct: Discrimination and Harassment in Cyberspace,” Journal of Management Policy and Practice 14, no. 5 (2013): 47–56.
  • Hall, Matthew ve Jeff Hearn. “Revenge Pornography and Manhood Acts: A Discourse Analysis of Perpetrators’ Accounts,” Journal of Gender Studies, 28 no. 2 (2019): 158-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1417117
  • Helweg‐Larsen, Karin, Nina Schütt ve Helmer B. Larsen. “Predictors and Protective Factors for Adolescent Internet Victimization: Results From a 2008 Nationwide Danish Youth Survey,” Acta Paediatrica, 101 no. 5 (2012): 533-539. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02587.x
  • Henry, Nicola ve Anastasia Powell. “Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Literature Review of Empirical Research,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19 no. 2 (2018): 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650189
  • Hill, Catherine ve Holly Kearl. Crossing the Line: Sexual Harassment in Schools. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women, 2011.
  • Hobbs, Mitchell, Stephen Owen ve Livia Gerber. “Liquid Love? Dating Apps, Sex, Relationships and the Digital Transformation of Intimacy,” Journal of Sociology, 53 no. 2 (2017): 271-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783316662718
  • Holladay, Kelley. (2016). “An Investigation of the Influence of Cyber-Sexual Assault on the Experience of Emotional Dysregulation, Depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Trauma Guilt.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation (Florida: University of Central Florida, USA, 2016).
  • Holt, T. J., A. M. Bossler, R. Malinski ve D. C. May. “Identifying Predictors of Unwanted Online Sexual Conversations Among Youth Using a Low Self-Control and Routine Activity Framework,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32 no. 2 (2016): 108-128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986215621376
  • Hom, M. A., I. H. Stanley, S. Spencer-Thomas ve T. E. Joiner. “Women Firefighters and Workplace Harassment: Associated Suicidality and Mental Health Sequelae,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205 no. 12 (2017): 910-917. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000759
  • Hootsuite ve We Are Social. Digital 2021: Global Overview Report. https://wearesocial.com/blog/2021/01/digital-2021-the-latest-insights-into-the-state- of-digital (Son erişim tarihi 23.03.2022).
  • Hu, Li-tze ve Peter M. Bentler. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit İndexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives,” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6 no. 1 (1999): 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Jacobs, Lynette, ve Corene de Wet. “A Comparison Between the Consequences of Peer Sexual Harassment for Boys and Girls,” Journal of Social Sciences, 28 no. 1 (2011): 29-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2011.11892926
  • Jones, Lisa M., Kimberly J. Mitchell ve David Finkelhor. “Trends in Youth Internet Victimization: Findings from Three Youth Internet Safety Surveys 2000–2010,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 50 no. 2 (2012): 179-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.09.015
  • Joreskog, K., D. Sörbom, S. du Toit, ve M. du Toit. LISREL 8: New Statistical Features. Scientific Software International, 1999.
  • Kaltiala-Heino, Rriittakerttu, Sari Fröjd ve Mauri Marttunen. “Sexual Harassment Victimization in Adolescence: Associations with Family Background,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 56 (2016): 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.04.005
  • Katz, James ve Elizabeth Thomas Crocker. “Selfies and Photo Messaging as Visual Conversation: Reports from the United States, United Kingdom, and China,” International Journal of Communication 9, (2015): 1861–1872.
  • Klettke, B., D. J. Hallford, E. Clancy, D. J. Mellor ve J. W. Toumbourou. “Sexting and Psychological Distress: The Role of Unwanted and Coerced Sexts,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22 no. 4 (2019): 237-242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0291
  • Kisa, Adnan, Sophia F. Dziegielewski ve Metin Ates. “Sexual Harassment and Its Consequences: A Study within Turkish Hospitals,” Journal of Health & Social Policy, 15 no. 1 (2002): 77-94. https://doi.org/10.1300/J045v15n01_05
  • Kline, Rex. B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, 2015.
  • Lee, Sun-Kyoung, Ju-Eun Song ve Sue Kim. “Experience and Perception of Sexual Harassment During the Clinical Practice of Korean Nursing Students,” Asian Nursing Research, 5 no. 3 (2011): 170-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2011.09.003
  • Lindsay, Megan ve Judy Kyrsik. “Online Harassment Among College Students: A Replication Incorporating New Internet Trends,” Information, Communication, & Society, 15 (2012): 703–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.674959
  • Mitchell, K. J., D. Finkelhor, L. M. Jones ve J. Wolak. “Prevalence and Characteristics of Youth Sexting: A National Study,” Pediatrics, 129 no. 1 (2012): 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1730
  • Mitchell, K. J., D. Finkelhor, J. Wolak, M. L. Ybarra ve H. Turner. “Youth Internet Victimization in a Broader Victimization Context,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 48 no. 2 (2011): 128-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.06.009
  • Mitchell, Kirstin ve Aleksandar Štulhofer. “Online Sexual Harassment and Negative Mood in Croatian Female Adolescents,” European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30 no. 2 (2021): 225-231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01506-7
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Michele L. Ybarra ve Josephine D. Korchmaros. “Sexual Harassment Among Adolescents of Different Sexual Orientations and Gender Identities,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 38 no. 2 (2014): 280-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.008
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak ve David Finkelhor. “Police Posing as Juveniles Online to Catch Sex Offenders: Is It Working?” Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 17 no. 3 (2005): 241-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11194-005-5055-2
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak ve David Finkelhor. “Are Blogs Putting Youth at Risk for Online Sexual Solicitation or Harassment?” Child Abuse & Neglect, 32 no. 2 (2008): 277-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.04.015
  • Näsi, M., P. Räsänen, M. Kaakinen, T. Keipi ve A. Oksanen. “Do Routine Activities Help Predict Young Adults’ Online Harassment: A Multi-Nation Study,” Criminology & Criminal Justice, 17 (2017): 418–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895816679866
  • Navarro, Jordana N. ve Jana L. Jasinski. “Demographic and Motivation Differences among Online Sex Offenders by Type of Offense: An Exploration of Routine Activities Theories,” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24 no. 7 (2015): 753-771. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1077363
  • Nova, F. F., M. R. Rifat, P. Saha, S. I. Ahmed ve S. Guha. “Online Sexual Harassment over Anonymous Social Media in Bangladesh.” In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development, edited by Rajesh Chandwani, Pushpendra Singh, 1-12. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287098.3287107
  • Öztürk, Erdinç ve Can Çalıcı. “Modern Toplumda Kimlik, Siber Dissosiyasyon ve Siber Alter: Teorik ve Klinik Bir Yaklaşım.” Ruhsal Travma ve Dissosiyasyon içinde, editör: Erdinç Öztürk, 39-47. Ankara: Türkiye Klinikleri Yayınevi, 2018.
  • Pashang, S., J. Clarke, N. Khanlou ve K. Degendorfer. “Redefining Cyber Sexual Violence Against Emerging Young Women: Toward Conceptual Clarity.” In Today’s youth and mental health. Advances in Mental Health and Addiction edited by Soheila Pashang, Nazilla Khanlou , Jennifer Clarke, 77-97. Springer, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64838-5_5
  • Pashang, Soheila, Nazilla Khanlou ve Jennifer Clarke. “The Mental Health Impact of Cyber Sexual Violence on Youth Identity,” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17 no. 5 (2019): 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-0032-4
  • Patel, Unnati ve Ronald Roesch. “The Prevalence of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Metaanalysis and Systematic Review,” Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 23 no. 2 (2022): 428-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020958057
  • Pew Research Center. Online Harassment 2017. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2017. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2017/07/PI_2017.07.11_Online-Harassment_FINAL.pdf (Son erişim tarihi 19.01.2022).
  • Powell, Anastasia ve Nicola Henry. Sexual Violence in a Digital Age. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
  • Powell, Anastasia ve Nicola Henry. “Technology-facilitated Sexual Violence Victimization: Results from an Online Survey of Australian Adults,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34 (2019): 3637–3665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516672055
  • Reed, E., M. Salazar, A. I. Behar, N. Agah, J. G. Silverman, A. M. Minnis ve A. Raj. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: Prevalence and Association with Substance Use, Poor Mental Health, and STI History among Sexually Active Adolescent Girls,” Journal of Adolescence, 75 (2019): 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.07.005
  • Reed, Elizabeth, Alice Wong ve Anita Raj. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: A Summary of Current Measures and Implications for Future Research,” Violence Against Women, 26 no. 12-13 (2020): 1727-1740. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219880959
  • Rinehart, Sarah J., Dorothy L. Espelage ve Kristen L. Bub. “Longitudinal Effects of Gendered Harassment Perpetration and Victimization on Mental Health Outcomes in Adolescence,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 35 no. 23-24 (2020): 5997-6016. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723746
  • Ritter, Barbara A. “Deviant Behavior in Computer-mediated Communication: Development and Validation of a Measure of Cybersexual Harassment,” Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 19 (2014): 197–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12039
  • Ruvalcaba, Yanet ve Asia A. Eaton. “Nonconsensual Pornography among US Adults: A Sexual Scripts Framework on Victimization, Perpetration, and Health Correlates for Women and Men,” Psychology of Violence, 10 no. 1 (2020): 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000233
  • Sánchez, Virginia, Noelia Muñoz-Fernández ve Rosario Ortega-Ruíz. “Cyberdating Q_A: An Instrument to Assess the Quality of Adolescent Dating Relationships ain Social Networks, ” Computers in Human Behavior, 48 (2015): 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.006
  • Scarduzio, Jennifer A., Sarah E. Sheff ve Mathew Smith. “Coping and Sexual Harassment: How Victims Cope Across Multiple Settings,” Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47 no. 2 (2018): 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1065-7
  • Shufford, Kevin N. “Explicit Content: Investigation of Online Sexual Harassment.” In Handbook of Research on Cyberbullying and Online Harassment in the Workplace, edited by Leslie R. Salazar, 517-552. IGI Global, 2021.
  • Smith, S. G., X. Zhang, K. C. Basile, M. T. Merrick, J. Wang, M. J. Kresnow ve J. Chen. National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2015 Data Brief. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018.
  • Snaychuk, Lindsey A. ve Melanie L. O’Neill. “Technology-facilitated Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Risk, and Resiliency in Undergraduate Students,” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29 no. 8 (2020): 984-999. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1710636
  • Sourander, A., A. B. Klomek, M. Ikonen, J. Lindroos, T. Luntamo, M. Koskelainen ve H. Helenius. “Psychosocial Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying among Adolescents: A Population-Based Study,” Archives of General Psychiatry, 67 no. 7 (2010): 720-728. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.79
  • Ståhl, Simon ve Inga Dennhag. “Online and Offline Sexual Harassment Associations of Anxiety and Depression in an Adolescent Sample,” Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 75 no. 5 (2021): 330-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2020.1856924
  • Statista. Social Media Usage Worldview 2021. https://www.statista.com/study/12393/social-networks-statista-dossier/ (Son erişim tarihi 18.04.2022).
  • Staude-Müller, Frithjof, Britta Hansen ve Melanie Voss. “How Stressful is Online Victimization? Effects of Victim's Personality and Properties of the Incident,” European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9 no. 2 (2012): 260-274. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643170
  • Stratton, Samuel J. “Population Research: Convenience Sampling Strategies,” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 36 no. 4 (2021): 373-374. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X21000649
  • Spitzberg, Brian H. ve Gregory Hoobler. “Cyberstalking and the Technologies of Interpersonal Terrorism,” New Media & Society 4 no. 1 (2002): 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614440222226271
  • Suler, John. “The Online Disinhibition Effect,” Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7 no. 3 (2004): 321-326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295
  • Sümer, Nebi. “Yapısal Eşitlik Modelleri: Temel Kavramlar ve Örnek Uygulamalar,” Türk Psikoloji Yazıları 3, no. 6 (2000): 49–74.
  • Şener, Gülüm ve Nilay Abınık. Türkiye'de Dijital Şiddet Araştırması 2021. İstanbul: Toplumsal Bilgi ve İletişim Derneği, 2021.
  • Tang, W. Y., Reer, F. ve Quandt, T. “Investigating Sexual Harassment in Online Video Games: How Personality and Context Factors Are Related to Toxic Sexual Behaviors against Fellow Players,” Aggressive Behavior, 46 no. 1 (2019): 127–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21873
  • Taylor, Bruce G., Weiwei Liu ve Elizabeth A. Mumford. “Profiles of Youth in-person and Online Sexual Harassment Victimization,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36 no. 13-14 (2021): 6769-6796. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518820673
  • Temur Şimşekcan, Nurcihan. “Toplumsal Cinsiyete Dayalı Şiddetin Başka Bir Biçimi: Siber Şiddet,” Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi (Mersin: Çağ Üniversitesi, Türkiye, 2018).
  • Thompson, Martie P. ve Deidra J. Morrison. “Prospective Predictors of Technology-Based Sexual Coercion by College Males,” Psychology of Violence, 3 (2013): 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030904
  • Ybarra, M. L., K. J. Mitchell, N. A. Palmer ve S. L. Reisner. “Online Social Support as a Buffer against Online and Offline Peer and Sexual Victimization among US LGBT and Non-LGBT Youth,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 39 (2015): 123-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.006
  • Vitak, J., K. Chadha, L. Steiner ve Z. Ashktorab. “Identifying Women’s Experiences with and Strategies for Mitigating Negative Effects of Online Harassment.” In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, edited by Steve Poltrock, Charlotte P. Lee, 1231-1245. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998337
  • Wang, J., R. J. Iannotti, J. W. Luk ve T. R Nansel. “Co-occurrence of Victimization from Five Subtypes of Bullying: Physical, Verbal, Social Exclusion, Spreading Rumors, and Cyber,” Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35 no. 10 (2010): 1103-1112. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsq048
  • World Health Organization (WHO). Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women: Prevalence an Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-Partner Sexual Violence. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2013.
  • Woolf, Linda M. ve Michael R. Hulsizer. “Sexual Violence,” In The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, edited by Kenneth D. Keith, 1168-1171. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
  • Zetterström Dahlqvist, Helene ve Katja Gillander Gådin. “Online Sexual Victimization in Youth: Predictors and Cross-Sectional Associations with Depressive Symptoms,” European Journal of Public Health, 28 no .6 (2018): 1018-1023. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky102
  • Zetterström Dahlqvist, H., E. Landstedt, R. Young ve K. Gådin. “Dimensions of Peer Sexual Harassment Victimization and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Study in a Swedish Sample,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45 no. 5 (2016): 858-873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0446-x
  • Zhong, Linda R., Mark R. Kebbell ve Julianne L. Webster. “An Exploratory Study of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence in Online Romantic Interactions: Can the Internet’s Toxic Disinhibition Exacerbate Sexual Aggression?” Computers in Human Behavior, 108 (2020): 106314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106314

Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye Uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması

Year 2023, , 232 - 257, 27.06.2023

Erol Esen , Barışcan Öztürk , Adil Kaval

https://doi.org/10.46655/federgi.1143343

Abstract

Bu çalışmanın amacı, Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlamasını gerçekleştirmek, bu kapsamda geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmalarını yapmaktadır. Çalışmanın bir diğer amacı ise üniversite öğrencilerinin çevrimiçi cinsel tacize maruz kalmalarının cinsiyete göre farklılık gösterip göstermediğinin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya 340 üniversite öğrencisi (221 kadın, 119 erkek) katılmıştır. Ölçeğin yapı geçerliğini incelemek amacıyla 340 katılımcıdan elde edilen veri seti ile Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi (DFA) yapılmıştır. Ölçeğin orijinalinde olduğu gibi 12 maddeden oluşan 2 faktörlü (cinsel ilgi ve cinsiyet temelli taciz) yapısı doğrulanmıştır. DFA sonucunda ulaşılan uyum iyiliği değerlerinin kabul edilebilir düzeyde olduğu görülmüştür (χ2/df= 3.77; GFI= .91; SRMR= .045; CFI= .95; NFI= .93; IFI= .95; TLI= .94). Cinsel ilgi ve cinsiyet temelli taciz boyutlarına ve ölçeğin bütününe ilişkin Cronbach alfa değerleri sırasıyla .93, .83, .94 olarak bulunmuştur. Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği (ÇCTÖ)’nin Türkçe formunun çevrimiçi cinsel taciz deneyimini ölçmek amacıyla kullanılabilecek geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğu söylenebilir. Bununla birlikte araştırmada kadın katılımcıların çevrimiçi cinsel taciz puan ortalamalarının hem alt boyutlarda hem de ölçeğin bütününde erkeklere göre anlamlı şekilde yüksek olduğu, istenmeyen cinsel ilgiye ve cinsiyet temelli tacize daha yoğun şekilde maruz kaldıkları belirlenmiştir.

Keywords

Çevrimiçi cinsel taciz ölçek uyarlama geçerlik güvenirlik

References

  • Agustina, José Ramon. “Understanding Cyber Victimization: Digital Architectures and the Disinhibition Effect,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 9 no. 1 (2015): 35-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22239
  • Arafa, A. E., R. S. Elbahrawe, N. M. Saber, S. S. Ahmed ve A. M. Ahmed. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: A Cross-sectional Survey Over Female University Students in Upper Egypt,” International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health, 5 no. 1 (2018): 61-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20175763
  • Barak, Azy. “Sexual Harassment on the Internet,” Social Science Computer Review, 23 no. 1 (2005): 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
  • Bates, Samantha. “Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Qualitative Analysis of the Mental Health Effects of Revenge Porn on Female Survivors,” Feminist Criminology, 12 no. 1 (2017): 22-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085116654565
  • Baumgartner, Susanne E., Patti M. Valkenburg ve Jochen Peter. “Unwanted Online Sexual Solicitation and Risky Sexual Online Behavior across the Lifespan,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31 no. 6 (2010): 439-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.07.005
  • Basu, P., T. Singha Roy, S. Tiwari ve S. Mehta. “CyberPolice: Classification of Cyber Sexual Harassment.” In Progress in Artificial Intelligence: 20th EPIA Conference on Artificial Intelligence, edited by Goreti Marreiros, Francisco S. Melo, Nuno Lau, Henrique Lopes Cardoso, Luís Paulo Reis, 701-714. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86230-5
  • Beaton, D., C. Bombardier, F. Guillemin ve M. B. Ferraz. “Recommendations for the Cross-cultural Adaptation of the DASH & QuickDASH Outcome Measures,” Institute for Work & Health 1, no. 1 (2007): 1-45.
  • Branch, K., C. M. Hilinski-Rosick, E. Johnson ve G. Solano. “Revenge Porn Victimization of College Students in the United States: An Exploratory Analysis,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11 no. 1 (2017): 128–142. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495777
  • Brown, Timothy A. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford Publications, 2006.
  • Buchanan, Niall ve Adam Mahoney. “Development of a Scale Measuring Online Sexual Harassment: Examining Gender Differences and the Emotional Impact of Sexual Harassment Victimization Online,” Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27 no. 1 (2021): 63-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12197
  • Büyüköztürk, Şener. Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2007.
  • Choi, Kyung-shich, Seong-Sik Lee ve Jin R. Lee. “Mobile Phone Technology and Online Sexual Harassment Among Juveniles in South Korea: Effects of Self-control and Social Learning,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 11 no. 1 (2017): 110-127. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495776
  • Chiodo, D., D. A. Wolfe, C. Crooks, R. Hughes ve P. Jaffe. “Impact of Sexual Harassment Victimization by Peers on Subsequent Adolescent Victimization and Adjustment: A longitudinal Study,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 45 no. 3 (2009): 246-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006
  • Cripps, Jenna ve Lana Stermac. “Cyber-sexual Violence and Negative Emotional States among Women in a Canadian University,” International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 12 no. 1 (2018): 171-186. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1467891
  • Cooper, Al. “Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the New Millennium,” CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1 no. 2 (1998): 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.187
  • Copp, Jennifer E., Elizabeth A. Mumford ve Bruce G. Taylor. “Online Sexual Harassment and Cyberbullying in a Nationally Representative Sample of Teens: Prevalence, Predictors, and Consequences,” Journal of Adolescence, 93 no. 1 (2021): 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.10.003
  • Cyber Civil Rights Initiative, Effects of Revenge Porn Survey 2014. http://www.endrevengeporn.org (Son erişim tarihi 24.12.2021).
  • Çapık, Cantürk, Sebahat Gözüm ve Seçil Aksayan. “Kültürlerarası Ölçek Uyarlama Aşamaları, Dil ve Kültür Uyarlaması: Güncellenmiş Rehber,” Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 26 no. 3 (2018): 199-210. https://doi.org/10.26650/FNJN397481
  • Doğan, Betül Önay, Yıldız Dilek Ertürk ve Pınar Aslan. “Facebook Kullanıcısı Kız Çocuklarına Yönelen Zorbalık Odaklı Siber Tacizin Cinsel Tacize Dönüşümü: Gazete Haberleri Üzerinden Betimsel Bir Değerlendirme,” Üsküdar Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi Etkileşim, 2 no. 1 (2018): 36-55. https://doi.org/10.32739/etkilesim.2018.2.27
  • Douglass, C. H., C. J. Wright, A. C. Davis ve M. S. Lim. “Correlates of in-person and Technology-Facilitated Sexual Harassment from an Online Survey among Young Australians,” Sexual Health, 15 no. 4 (2018): 361-365. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH17208
  • Dönmez, Yunus Emre. “Çocuk ve Ergen Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları Ergen Hasta Popülasyonunda Online Cinsel İstismar Sıklığı, İlişkili Risk Faktörleri ve Sonrasında Oluşabilecek Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu,” Yayımlanmış Tıpta Uzmanlık Tezi (Malatya: İnönü Üniversitesi, Türkiye, 2017).
  • Delziovo, C. R., C. C. Bolsoni, N. O. Nazário ve E. B. S. Coelho. “Characteristics of Sexual Violence Against Adolescent and Adult Women Reported by The Public Health Services in Santa Catarina State, Brazil,” Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 33 no. 6 (2017). e00002716-e00002716. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00002716
  • Dreßing, H., J. Bailer, A. Anders, H. Wagner ve C. Gallas. “Cyberstalking in a Large Sample of Social Network Users: Prevalence, Characteristics, and İmpact upon Victims,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17 no. 2 (2014): 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0231
  • Drouin, Michelle, Jody Ross ve Elizabeth Tobin. “Sexting: A New, Digital Vehicle for İntimate Partner Aggression?” Computers in Human Behavior, 50 no. 1 (2015): 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001
  • Durana, A., A. Lenhart, R. Miller, B. Schulte ve E. Weingarten. Sexual Harassment: A Severe and Pervasive Problem. Washington, DC: New America Foundation, 2018.
  • Finn, Jerry. “A Survey of Online Harassment at a University Campus,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19 no. 4 (2004): 468-483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503262083
  • Gámez-Guadix, M., C. Almendros, E. Borrajo ve E. Calvete. “Prevalence and Association of Sexting and Online Sexual Victimization Among Spanish Adults,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12 no. 2 (2015): 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9
  • Gruber, E. James ve Susan Fineran. “Comparing the Impact of Bullying and Sexual Harassment Victimization on the Mental and Physical Health of Adolescents,” Sex Roles, 59 no. 1 (2008): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9431-5
  • Guerra, C., C. Pinto-Cortez, E. Toro, E. Efthymiadou ve E. Quayle. “Online Sexual Harassment and Depression in Chilean Adolescents: Variations Based on Gender and Age of the Offenders,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 120 (2021): 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105219
  • Gumbus, Andra ve Patricia Meglich. “Abusive Online Conduct: Discrimination and Harassment in Cyberspace,” Journal of Management Policy and Practice 14, no. 5 (2013): 47–56.
  • Hall, Matthew ve Jeff Hearn. “Revenge Pornography and Manhood Acts: A Discourse Analysis of Perpetrators’ Accounts,” Journal of Gender Studies, 28 no. 2 (2019): 158-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1417117
  • Helweg‐Larsen, Karin, Nina Schütt ve Helmer B. Larsen. “Predictors and Protective Factors for Adolescent Internet Victimization: Results From a 2008 Nationwide Danish Youth Survey,” Acta Paediatrica, 101 no. 5 (2012): 533-539. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02587.x
  • Henry, Nicola ve Anastasia Powell. “Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Literature Review of Empirical Research,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19 no. 2 (2018): 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650189
  • Hill, Catherine ve Holly Kearl. Crossing the Line: Sexual Harassment in Schools. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women, 2011.
  • Hobbs, Mitchell, Stephen Owen ve Livia Gerber. “Liquid Love? Dating Apps, Sex, Relationships and the Digital Transformation of Intimacy,” Journal of Sociology, 53 no. 2 (2017): 271-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783316662718
  • Holladay, Kelley. (2016). “An Investigation of the Influence of Cyber-Sexual Assault on the Experience of Emotional Dysregulation, Depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Trauma Guilt.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation (Florida: University of Central Florida, USA, 2016).
  • Holt, T. J., A. M. Bossler, R. Malinski ve D. C. May. “Identifying Predictors of Unwanted Online Sexual Conversations Among Youth Using a Low Self-Control and Routine Activity Framework,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 32 no. 2 (2016): 108-128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986215621376
  • Hom, M. A., I. H. Stanley, S. Spencer-Thomas ve T. E. Joiner. “Women Firefighters and Workplace Harassment: Associated Suicidality and Mental Health Sequelae,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205 no. 12 (2017): 910-917. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000759
  • Hootsuite ve We Are Social. Digital 2021: Global Overview Report. https://wearesocial.com/blog/2021/01/digital-2021-the-latest-insights-into-the-state- of-digital (Son erişim tarihi 23.03.2022).
  • Hu, Li-tze ve Peter M. Bentler. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit İndexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives,” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6 no. 1 (1999): 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Jacobs, Lynette, ve Corene de Wet. “A Comparison Between the Consequences of Peer Sexual Harassment for Boys and Girls,” Journal of Social Sciences, 28 no. 1 (2011): 29-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2011.11892926
  • Jones, Lisa M., Kimberly J. Mitchell ve David Finkelhor. “Trends in Youth Internet Victimization: Findings from Three Youth Internet Safety Surveys 2000–2010,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 50 no. 2 (2012): 179-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.09.015
  • Joreskog, K., D. Sörbom, S. du Toit, ve M. du Toit. LISREL 8: New Statistical Features. Scientific Software International, 1999.
  • Kaltiala-Heino, Rriittakerttu, Sari Fröjd ve Mauri Marttunen. “Sexual Harassment Victimization in Adolescence: Associations with Family Background,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 56 (2016): 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.04.005
  • Katz, James ve Elizabeth Thomas Crocker. “Selfies and Photo Messaging as Visual Conversation: Reports from the United States, United Kingdom, and China,” International Journal of Communication 9, (2015): 1861–1872.
  • Klettke, B., D. J. Hallford, E. Clancy, D. J. Mellor ve J. W. Toumbourou. “Sexting and Psychological Distress: The Role of Unwanted and Coerced Sexts,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22 no. 4 (2019): 237-242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0291
  • Kisa, Adnan, Sophia F. Dziegielewski ve Metin Ates. “Sexual Harassment and Its Consequences: A Study within Turkish Hospitals,” Journal of Health & Social Policy, 15 no. 1 (2002): 77-94. https://doi.org/10.1300/J045v15n01_05
  • Kline, Rex. B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, 2015.
  • Lee, Sun-Kyoung, Ju-Eun Song ve Sue Kim. “Experience and Perception of Sexual Harassment During the Clinical Practice of Korean Nursing Students,” Asian Nursing Research, 5 no. 3 (2011): 170-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2011.09.003
  • Lindsay, Megan ve Judy Kyrsik. “Online Harassment Among College Students: A Replication Incorporating New Internet Trends,” Information, Communication, & Society, 15 (2012): 703–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.674959
  • Mitchell, K. J., D. Finkelhor, L. M. Jones ve J. Wolak. “Prevalence and Characteristics of Youth Sexting: A National Study,” Pediatrics, 129 no. 1 (2012): 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1730
  • Mitchell, K. J., D. Finkelhor, J. Wolak, M. L. Ybarra ve H. Turner. “Youth Internet Victimization in a Broader Victimization Context,” Journal of Adolescent Health, 48 no. 2 (2011): 128-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.06.009
  • Mitchell, Kirstin ve Aleksandar Štulhofer. “Online Sexual Harassment and Negative Mood in Croatian Female Adolescents,” European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30 no. 2 (2021): 225-231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01506-7
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Michele L. Ybarra ve Josephine D. Korchmaros. “Sexual Harassment Among Adolescents of Different Sexual Orientations and Gender Identities,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 38 no. 2 (2014): 280-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.008
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak ve David Finkelhor. “Police Posing as Juveniles Online to Catch Sex Offenders: Is It Working?” Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 17 no. 3 (2005): 241-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11194-005-5055-2
  • Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak ve David Finkelhor. “Are Blogs Putting Youth at Risk for Online Sexual Solicitation or Harassment?” Child Abuse & Neglect, 32 no. 2 (2008): 277-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.04.015
  • Näsi, M., P. Räsänen, M. Kaakinen, T. Keipi ve A. Oksanen. “Do Routine Activities Help Predict Young Adults’ Online Harassment: A Multi-Nation Study,” Criminology & Criminal Justice, 17 (2017): 418–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895816679866
  • Navarro, Jordana N. ve Jana L. Jasinski. “Demographic and Motivation Differences among Online Sex Offenders by Type of Offense: An Exploration of Routine Activities Theories,” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24 no. 7 (2015): 753-771. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2015.1077363
  • Nova, F. F., M. R. Rifat, P. Saha, S. I. Ahmed ve S. Guha. “Online Sexual Harassment over Anonymous Social Media in Bangladesh.” In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development, edited by Rajesh Chandwani, Pushpendra Singh, 1-12. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287098.3287107
  • Öztürk, Erdinç ve Can Çalıcı. “Modern Toplumda Kimlik, Siber Dissosiyasyon ve Siber Alter: Teorik ve Klinik Bir Yaklaşım.” Ruhsal Travma ve Dissosiyasyon içinde, editör: Erdinç Öztürk, 39-47. Ankara: Türkiye Klinikleri Yayınevi, 2018.
  • Pashang, S., J. Clarke, N. Khanlou ve K. Degendorfer. “Redefining Cyber Sexual Violence Against Emerging Young Women: Toward Conceptual Clarity.” In Today’s youth and mental health. Advances in Mental Health and Addiction edited by Soheila Pashang, Nazilla Khanlou , Jennifer Clarke, 77-97. Springer, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64838-5_5
  • Pashang, Soheila, Nazilla Khanlou ve Jennifer Clarke. “The Mental Health Impact of Cyber Sexual Violence on Youth Identity,” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17 no. 5 (2019): 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-0032-4
  • Patel, Unnati ve Ronald Roesch. “The Prevalence of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Metaanalysis and Systematic Review,” Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 23 no. 2 (2022): 428-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020958057
  • Pew Research Center. Online Harassment 2017. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2017. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2017/07/PI_2017.07.11_Online-Harassment_FINAL.pdf (Son erişim tarihi 19.01.2022).
  • Powell, Anastasia ve Nicola Henry. Sexual Violence in a Digital Age. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
  • Powell, Anastasia ve Nicola Henry. “Technology-facilitated Sexual Violence Victimization: Results from an Online Survey of Australian Adults,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34 (2019): 3637–3665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516672055
  • Reed, E., M. Salazar, A. I. Behar, N. Agah, J. G. Silverman, A. M. Minnis ve A. Raj. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: Prevalence and Association with Substance Use, Poor Mental Health, and STI History among Sexually Active Adolescent Girls,” Journal of Adolescence, 75 (2019): 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.07.005
  • Reed, Elizabeth, Alice Wong ve Anita Raj. “Cyber Sexual Harassment: A Summary of Current Measures and Implications for Future Research,” Violence Against Women, 26 no. 12-13 (2020): 1727-1740. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219880959
  • Rinehart, Sarah J., Dorothy L. Espelage ve Kristen L. Bub. “Longitudinal Effects of Gendered Harassment Perpetration and Victimization on Mental Health Outcomes in Adolescence,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 35 no. 23-24 (2020): 5997-6016. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723746
  • Ritter, Barbara A. “Deviant Behavior in Computer-mediated Communication: Development and Validation of a Measure of Cybersexual Harassment,” Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 19 (2014): 197–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12039
  • Ruvalcaba, Yanet ve Asia A. Eaton. “Nonconsensual Pornography among US Adults: A Sexual Scripts Framework on Victimization, Perpetration, and Health Correlates for Women and Men,” Psychology of Violence, 10 no. 1 (2020): 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000233
  • Sánchez, Virginia, Noelia Muñoz-Fernández ve Rosario Ortega-Ruíz. “Cyberdating Q_A: An Instrument to Assess the Quality of Adolescent Dating Relationships ain Social Networks, ” Computers in Human Behavior, 48 (2015): 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.006
  • Scarduzio, Jennifer A., Sarah E. Sheff ve Mathew Smith. “Coping and Sexual Harassment: How Victims Cope Across Multiple Settings,” Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47 no. 2 (2018): 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1065-7
  • Shufford, Kevin N. “Explicit Content: Investigation of Online Sexual Harassment.” In Handbook of Research on Cyberbullying and Online Harassment in the Workplace, edited by Leslie R. Salazar, 517-552. IGI Global, 2021.
  • Smith, S. G., X. Zhang, K. C. Basile, M. T. Merrick, J. Wang, M. J. Kresnow ve J. Chen. National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2015 Data Brief. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018.
  • Snaychuk, Lindsey A. ve Melanie L. O’Neill. “Technology-facilitated Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Risk, and Resiliency in Undergraduate Students,” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 29 no. 8 (2020): 984-999. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1710636
  • Sourander, A., A. B. Klomek, M. Ikonen, J. Lindroos, T. Luntamo, M. Koskelainen ve H. Helenius. “Psychosocial Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying among Adolescents: A Population-Based Study,” Archives of General Psychiatry, 67 no. 7 (2010): 720-728. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.79
  • Ståhl, Simon ve Inga Dennhag. “Online and Offline Sexual Harassment Associations of Anxiety and Depression in an Adolescent Sample,” Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 75 no. 5 (2021): 330-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2020.1856924
  • Statista. Social Media Usage Worldview 2021. https://www.statista.com/study/12393/social-networks-statista-dossier/ (Son erişim tarihi 18.04.2022).
  • Staude-Müller, Frithjof, Britta Hansen ve Melanie Voss. “How Stressful is Online Victimization? Effects of Victim's Personality and Properties of the Incident,” European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9 no. 2 (2012): 260-274. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643170
  • Stratton, Samuel J. “Population Research: Convenience Sampling Strategies,” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 36 no. 4 (2021): 373-374. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X21000649
  • Spitzberg, Brian H. ve Gregory Hoobler. “Cyberstalking and the Technologies of Interpersonal Terrorism,” New Media & Society 4 no. 1 (2002): 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614440222226271
  • Suler, John. “The Online Disinhibition Effect,” Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7 no. 3 (2004): 321-326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295
  • Sümer, Nebi. “Yapısal Eşitlik Modelleri: Temel Kavramlar ve Örnek Uygulamalar,” Türk Psikoloji Yazıları 3, no. 6 (2000): 49–74.
  • Şener, Gülüm ve Nilay Abınık. Türkiye'de Dijital Şiddet Araştırması 2021. İstanbul: Toplumsal Bilgi ve İletişim Derneği, 2021.
  • Tang, W. Y., Reer, F. ve Quandt, T. “Investigating Sexual Harassment in Online Video Games: How Personality and Context Factors Are Related to Toxic Sexual Behaviors against Fellow Players,” Aggressive Behavior, 46 no. 1 (2019): 127–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21873
  • Taylor, Bruce G., Weiwei Liu ve Elizabeth A. Mumford. “Profiles of Youth in-person and Online Sexual Harassment Victimization,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36 no. 13-14 (2021): 6769-6796. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518820673
  • Temur Şimşekcan, Nurcihan. “Toplumsal Cinsiyete Dayalı Şiddetin Başka Bir Biçimi: Siber Şiddet,” Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi (Mersin: Çağ Üniversitesi, Türkiye, 2018).
  • Thompson, Martie P. ve Deidra J. Morrison. “Prospective Predictors of Technology-Based Sexual Coercion by College Males,” Psychology of Violence, 3 (2013): 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030904
  • Ybarra, M. L., K. J. Mitchell, N. A. Palmer ve S. L. Reisner. “Online Social Support as a Buffer against Online and Offline Peer and Sexual Victimization among US LGBT and Non-LGBT Youth,” Child Abuse & Neglect, 39 (2015): 123-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.006
  • Vitak, J., K. Chadha, L. Steiner ve Z. Ashktorab. “Identifying Women’s Experiences with and Strategies for Mitigating Negative Effects of Online Harassment.” In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, edited by Steve Poltrock, Charlotte P. Lee, 1231-1245. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998337
  • Wang, J., R. J. Iannotti, J. W. Luk ve T. R Nansel. “Co-occurrence of Victimization from Five Subtypes of Bullying: Physical, Verbal, Social Exclusion, Spreading Rumors, and Cyber,” Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35 no. 10 (2010): 1103-1112. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsq048
  • World Health Organization (WHO). Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women: Prevalence an Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-Partner Sexual Violence. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2013.
  • Woolf, Linda M. ve Michael R. Hulsizer. “Sexual Violence,” In The Encyclopedia of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, edited by Kenneth D. Keith, 1168-1171. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
  • Zetterström Dahlqvist, Helene ve Katja Gillander Gådin. “Online Sexual Victimization in Youth: Predictors and Cross-Sectional Associations with Depressive Symptoms,” European Journal of Public Health, 28 no .6 (2018): 1018-1023. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky102
  • Zetterström Dahlqvist, H., E. Landstedt, R. Young ve K. Gådin. “Dimensions of Peer Sexual Harassment Victimization and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Study in a Swedish Sample,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45 no. 5 (2016): 858-873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0446-x
  • Zhong, Linda R., Mark R. Kebbell ve Julianne L. Webster. “An Exploratory Study of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence in Online Romantic Interactions: Can the Internet’s Toxic Disinhibition Exacerbate Sexual Aggression?” Computers in Human Behavior, 108 (2020): 106314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106314
There are 97 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Women's Studies
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Erol Esen 0000-0002-8285-2666

Barışcan Öztürk

Adil Kaval 0000-0002-1708-287X

Publication Date June 27, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023

Cite

Chicago Esen, Erol, Barışcan Öztürk, and Adil Kaval. “Çevrimiçi Cinsel Taciz Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye Uyarlanması: Geçerlik Ve Güvenirlik Çalışması”. Fe Dergi 15, no. 1 (June 2023): 232-57. https://doi.org/10.46655/federgi.1143343.