2005-2015 Perspektifinden Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin Sahraaltı Afrika Politikası ve Afrika Komutanlığı (AFRICOM)

Year 2020, , 461 - 517, 07.10.2020

Yücel Özel Güngör Şahin

https://doi.org/10.17752/guvenlikstrtj.806969

Abstract

Uzun yıllar uluslararası sistemde incelenmeye değer görülmeyen ve Soğuk Savaş’ın kutupları ABD ve SSCB açısından hak ettiği ilgiyi göremeyen Afrika, iki kutuplu sistemin çöküşüyle birlikte başta Sahraaltı Afrika olmak üzere yeniden ilgi odağı haline gelmeye başlamıştır. 2008 yılında küresel düzeyde yaşanan finansal kriz, dünya genelinde güçler arasındaki rekabeti şiddetlendirmiş, Afrika’nın sahip olduğu kaynaklar açısından çekiciliğini gündeme getirmiştir. Kriz sonrasında Afrika, ABD ile birlikte yükselen güçlerin (Brezilya, Rusya, Hindistan, Çin, Türkiye) rekabetinde dönüm noktasına ulaşmıştır. 2005 yılı sonrasında ABD kıtaya gerçek anlamda ilgi göstermeye başlamış, 2007 yılında Afrika Komutanlığı’nın (AFRICOM) kuruluşuyla birlikte ABD’nin Afrika politikası, Savunma Bakanlığı ve Dışişleri Bakanlığı’nın görev ve teşkilatı üzerinde uzlaşı sağladığı AFRICOM ile daha uygun bir zeminde uygulama alanı bulmuştur. ABD’nin, günümüz uluslararası ilişkiler teori ve analizlerinin henüz tam olarak uygulanabilir olmadığı Sahraaltı Afrika’ya yönelik 2005-2015 yılları arasında uyguladığı politika, Afrika’nın değişiminde ve yerel güç dengelerinde etkili olmuş, aynı zamanda terörle mücadelede bir dönüşüm gerektirmiştir. ABD dış politika kararlarının alınmasında iç ve dış kamuoyunun etkisi olmakla birlikte, Afrika ülkelerinde kimliğe ve geçmişe dayalı dış tehdit algısı da bu politikaların belirlenmesinde önemli olmuş, 2008 yılı sonrasında ABD’nin Afrika’daki faaliyetleri ulusal çıkarlarını gerçekleştirecek tarzda özenle seçilmiş ve yönlendirilmiştir.

Keywords

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD), Afrika, Birleşik Devletler Afrika Komutanlığı, Sahraaltı Afrika, Bütünsel Devlet Yaklaşımı

U.S. Sub-Saharan African Policy and Africa Command (AFRICOM) from the 2005-2015 Perspective

Abstract

The continent of Africa, which has long been neglected in the international stage for many years, and which has not received the attention it deserves from neither centres of power poles, especially Sub-Saharan Africa has become a centre of interest after the collapse of the bipolar system. The global financial crisis of 2008 intensified the competition the Powers across the world, and enhanced Africa’s attractiveness as a resource-rich continent. After the 2008 crisis, Africa has become one of the geopolitical competition grounds for the United States (US) and rising powers (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Turkey). After the year 2005, the US began to show real interest in the continent, and with the establishment of US Africa Command (AFRICOM) in 2007, African policy of the USA was identified with AFRICOM. The policies that the United States followed for sub-Saharan Africa between 2005 and 2015, when current theories and analyses of international relations were yet to be fully implemented, have influenced Africa’s transformation and regional balances of power. In the adoption of US foreign policy decisions, domestic and international public opinion is critical; however, the external threat perception based on identity and background in African countries have also been important in determining these policies. After the 2008 Crisis, the US engagements in Africa were carefully selected and governed in such a way to achieve national interests.

Keywords

United States of America (USA), Africa, United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), Sub-Saharan Africa, Whole of Government Approach

References

• ADEDEJİ, Adebayo, Comprehending And Mastering African Conflicts: The Search For Sustainable Peace And Good Governance, Zeb Books Ltd., London, 1999.
• BELL, Daniel, The End Of Ideology: On The Exhaustion Of Political Ideas İn The Fifties, The Free Press Of Glencoe, Illinois, 1960.
• BROWN, David E. Et Al, How China’s Advance İn Africa İs Underestimated And Africa’s Potential Underappreciated, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, Pa, September 2012.
• CLAPHAM, Christopher S., Africa And The International System: The Politics Of State Survival, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
• COX., Robert W., Production, Power And World Order: Social Forces İn The Making Of History, New York, Columbia University Press, 1987.
• FUKUYAMA, Francis, The End Of History And The Last Men, Macmillan Inc., New York, 1992.
• O’HAGAN, Jacinta, Conceptualizing The West İn International Relations: From Spengler To Said, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002.
• PASTOR, Robert A., Congress And The Politics Of U.S. Foreign Economic Policy, 1929-1976, University Of California Press, 1980.
• SCHRAEDER, Peter J., United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, And Change, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• Senate Committee On Foreign Relations, Economic Statecraft: Embracing Africa’s Market Potential, 112th Cong., 2d Sess., S. Hrg. 112-604, 2012.
• WENDT, Alexander, Social Theory Of International Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999.
• ARIEFF, Alexis Et Al, “Crs Report R41840 U.S. Foreign Assistance To Sub-Saharan Africa: The Fy2012 Request”, Crs Report For Congress, Defense And Trade Division, May 20, 2011.
• ARSLAN, İbrahim, “Bir Ülke-Bir Kıta İlişkileri: Çin-Afrika Örneği”, Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi/Journal Of Administrative Sciences, Cilt / Volume: 16, Sayı / N: 31, Ss. / Pp.: 125-142, 2018.
• AYBAR, Sedat, Değişen Afrika, Yeni Paylaşım Savaşı Ve Türkiye’nin Stratejisi, Https://Www.Dunyabulteni.Net/Afrika/Degisen-Afrika-Yeni-Paylasim-Savasi-Ve-Turkiyenin-Stratejisi-H457154.Html (Erişim Tarihi: 13.06.2020)
• AYBAR, Sedat, Afrika’daki Terörün ‘Kök’ü Dışarıda, http://panorama.khas.edu.tr/ afrikadaki-terorun-koku-disarida-262 (Erişim Tarihi: 14.06.2020)
• BLANCHE, Ed, “Africom’s Agenda Still Baffles Africa”, New African, No. 481, February 1, 2009.
• BOUTROS-GHALİ, Boutros, “The Marginalization Of Africa”, Mediterranean Quarterly, 1996. Craddock, Bantz John, “Statement Of Reappointment To Be General And To Be Commander, U.S. European Command”, Nominations Before The Senate Armed Services Committee, Second Session, 109th Congress, September 19, 2006, https://www.gpo.gov/Fdsys/Pkg/Chrg-109shrg36311/Pdf/Chrg-109shrg36311.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 19.08.2017).
• BROWN, David E., “Africom At 5 Years: The Maturation Of A New U.S. Combatant Command”, The U.S. Africa Command (Afrıcom), Us Army War College Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Department Of Defense, Carlisle, Pa, 2013.
• DAGNE, Ted “Crs Report Rl33591 Africa: U.S. Foreign Assistance Issues”, Crs Report For Congress, Congressional Research Service, September 15, 2011, https://fas.org/Sgp/Crs/Row/Rl33591.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 19.08.2017).
• FOX, William T. And Fox, Anetta Eaker, “The Teaching Of International Relations İn The United States”, World Politics, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 13, No.3, 1961, http://www.jstor.org/Stable/2009479 (Erişim Tarihi: 19.05.2016).
• HENRY, Christopher Ryan, “Afrıcom”, Advisory Committee On Voluntary Foreign Aid Public Meeting, May 23, 2007, https://www.usaid.gov/Sites/ Default/Files/Documents/1868/052307_Fullreport.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• HOPF, Ted, “The Promise Of Constructivism İn International Relations Theory”, International Security, Vol.23, No.1, July 1, 1998.
• KARAGÜL Soner, Arslan İbrahim, “Afrika’da Barış ve Güvenliğin İnşasında Kıtasal Yaklaşım: Afrika Barış ve Güvenlik Mimarisi”, Güvenlik Stratejileri, Yıl: 10, Sayı: 19.
• KARSHENAS, Messoud, “Agriculture And Economic Development In Sub-Saharan Africa And Asia”, Cambridge Journal Of Economics, Volume 25, Issue 3, 1 May 2001, Pp 315-342. Doi: 10.1093/Cje/25.3.315
• MCFATE, Sean, “Us Africa Command: Next Step Or Next Stumble”, African Affairs, December 24, 2007.
• MCMAHON, Edward R., “The Impact Of U.S. Democracy And Governance Assistance İn Africa: Benin Case Study”, Center On Democratic Performance Department Of Political Science, Binghamton University, New York, 2002.
• MİLES, Donna “Afrıcom’s Makeup Promotes ‘Whole-Of-Government’ Approaches,” American Forces Press Service, July 2, 2012 (Erişim Tarihi: 14.08.2017).
• NJİNİ, Felix, “Africa: Final Conquest For Pentagon’s Global Military Sphere Of Influence”, Global Research, September 06, 2011, https://www.globalresearch.ca/ Africa-Final-Conquest-For-Pentagon-S-Global-Military-Sphere-Of-İnfluence/26411 (Erişim Tarihi: 23.04.2017).
• ORTİZ, Milady, “U.S. Africa Command: A New Way Of Thinking”, National Security Watch, March 13, 2008.
• “Pentagon: Afrıcom Won’t Boost U.S. Troop Presence On The Continent”, Inside The Army, February 12, 2007.
• PHAM, J.Peter,“Africa İn The ‘New, New World”, Atlantic Council, July 19, 2012, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/İmages/Publications/Africa_New_New_World.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 14.10.2017).
• PLOCH, Lauren “A More Active American Approach To Addressing African Security Challenges?”, Us Africa Command, 2009, http://library.fes.de/Pdf-Files/İpg/İpg-2009-1/06_A_Ploch_Us.Pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.08.2017).
• PLOCH, Lauren, “African Command: U.S. Strategic Interest And The Role Of The U.S. Military İn Africa,” Washington, Dc: Congressional Research Service, July 22, 2011.
• PUTNAM, Robert D., “Diplomacy And Domestic Politics: The Logic Of Two-Level Games”, International Organization, Vol.:42, No.: 3, 1988, http://isites.harvard.edu/Fs/ Docs/İcb.Topic1188138.Files/Week%205/Putnam_1988.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 10.07.2017).
• RAPHAEL, Sam And Stokes, Doug, “Globalizing West African Oil: Us ‘Energy Security’ And The Global Economy”, International Affairs, 87:4, The Royal Institute Of International Affairs, July 1, 2011.
• ROTBERG, Robert I., “Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes And Indicators”, State Failure And State Weakness İn A Time Of Terror, Brooking Institution Press, 2003, P.1-2.
• RUGGIE, John Gerard, “What Makes The World Hang Together? Neo-Utilitarianism And The Social Constructivist Challenge”, International Organization, 52/4, Pp 855-885.
• SARI, Buğra, “Amerikan Ulusal Çıkarları Ve Afrika”, Ankara Üniversitesi Afrika Çalışmaları Dergisi, Cilt 1, Sayı 2, Bahar 2012.
• VAN DE WALLE, Nicolas, “Us Policy Towards Africa: The Bush Legacy And The Obama Administration”, African Affairs, Vol.109, No.434, 2009.
• VOLMAN, Daniel, “Obama, Africom, And U.S. Military Policy Toward Africa”, Pas Working Paper Number 14, Ed. David Schoenbrun, Program Of African Studies, Northwestern University, Evanston, 2009, https://www.africanstudies.northwestern. edu/Docs/Publications-Research/Working-Papers/Volman-Obama-Africom.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 18.08.2017).
• WALD, Charles, , U.S. European Command, “Climate Change: National Security Threats”, Senate Foreign Relations Committee Member, Military Advisory Board, First Session, 110th Congress, May 9, 2007, https://www.gpo.gov/Fdsys/Pkg/Chrg-110shrg42725/Html/Chrg-110shrg42725.Htm (Erişim Tarihi: 21.05.2017).
• WALD, Charles, “The Phase Zero Campaign”, Joint Force Quarterly, Issue 43, 4th Quarter 2006, http://www.dtic.mil/Get-Tr-Doc/Pdf?Ad=Ada522176 (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• WALT, Stephan M.,“Uluslararası İlişkiler: Bir Dünya Binbir Kuram”, Çev. Başak Çalı, Bilginin Ufukları, İstanbul, Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 1998.
• WENDT, Alexander, “Anarchy Is What States Make Of It: The Social Construction Of Power Politics”, International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2, 1992, http://www.jstor.org/Stable/2706858 (Erişim Tarihi: 20.03.2016).
• WENDT, Alexander,“Collective Identity Formation And The International State”, The American Political Review, American Political Science Association, Vol.88, No.2, 1994, http://www.jstor.org/Stable/2944711 (Erişim Tarihi: 26.06.2016).
• AYBAR, Sedat, Türkiye-Afrika Lişkilerinde Yeni Aşama, Analiz, 25.11.2016, https://www.aa.com.tr/Tr/Analiz-Haber/Turkiye-Afrika-İliskilerinde-Yeni-Asama/693041 (Erişim Tarihi: 13.06.2020)
• Gao Report: Gao-09-181, “Gao Defense Management Actions Needed To Address Stakeholder Concerns, Improve Interagency Collaboration, And Determine Full Costs Associated With The U.S. Africa Command”, United States Government Accountability Office, February 2009, http://www.africom.mil/Doc/9187/Gao-Report-İssues-Related-To-Us-Africa-Command (Erişim Tarihi:14.08.2017).
• GRİMMETT, Richard F., “Crs Report R41539, U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements With And Deliveries To Major Clients, 2002-2009”, Congressional Research Service, December 20, 2010, https://www.hsdl.org/?View&Did=12004 (Erişim Tarihi: 02.06.2017).
• HAM, Carter, “2012 Posture Statement: Statement Of General Carter Ham Before House Armed Services Committee”, U.S. Africa Command, U.S. Afrıcom Public Affairs, Stuttgart, Germany, Mars 1, 2012, https://www.africom.mil/Media-Room/Article/8832/ 2012-Posture-Statement-Statement-Of-General-Carter (Erişim Tarihi: 14.10.2017).
• “Quadrennial Defense Review Report”, U.S. Department Of Defense, 1 February 2010.
• “The Fiscal Year Defense Budget Request FY 2011”, Office of the under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller), U.S. Department of Defense, February 2010, http://comptroller. defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2011/FY2011_Budget_Request_Overview_Book.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• World Population Prospects 2019, Data Booklet, p.13. https://population.un.org/ wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_DataBooklet.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 11.06.2020).
• Afrika Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi, http://africacenter.org/ (Erişim Tarihi: 19.08.2017).
• Café Pan-Afrika, “AFRICOM and the Recolonisation of Africa”, Modern Ghana, 25 October 2012, https://www.modernghana.com/news/426168/1/africom-and-the-recolonisation-of-africa.html (Erişim Tarihi: 19.082017).
• Department of State, http://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rpt/fmtrpt (Erişim Tarihi: 27.02.2018).
• DOD Office of International Security Affairs, “United States Security Strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa”, August 1995, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord& metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA297401 (Erişim Tarihi: 02.06.2017).
• Ernst and Young’s attractiveness survey, “Building bridges: Africa”, 2012, p. 16, 30, http://www.apo-mail.org/EY%202012%20Africa%20Attractiveness.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 06.08.2017).
• “Force Structure: Preliminary Observations on the Progress and Challenges Associated with Establishing the U.S. Africa Command”, GAO-08-947T, Government Accountability Office, July 15, 2008, http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/120611.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 23.04.2017).
• Joint Publication 3-08, Interorganizational Cooperation, Joint Chiefs of Staff, US, 12 October 2016, https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_08.pdf (Erişim Tarihi:16.08.2017).
• La commission des affaires étrangères, de la défense et des forces armées, “La présence de la France dans une Afrique convoitée”, SÉNAT, Rapport d´information, N° 104, Session Ordinaire de 2013-2014, 29 Octobre 2013, https://www.senat.fr/rap/r13-104/r13-1041.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 22.07.2017).
• “Military Support for Stability, Security, Transition, and Reconstruction (SSTR) Operations”, DOD Directive 3000.05, November 28, 2005, https://fas.org/irp/doddir/ dod/d3000_05.pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• National Security Strategy Archive, “The National Security Strategy of the United States”, 17 September 2002, http://nssarchive.us/national-security-strategy-2002/ (Erişim Tarihi: 18.08.2017).
• National Security Strategy Archive, “The National Security Strategy of the United States”, 16 March 2006, http://nssarchive.us/national-security-strategy-2006/ (Erişim Tarihi: 19.08.2017).
• Nye, Joseph, “Soft Power And Obama’s Grand Strategy”, Speech On Foreign Policy At The Sanford School, The Cronicle, Duke University, March 24, 2010, http://www.dukechronicle.com/article/2010/03/Nye-Argues-Smart-Soft-Power (Erişim Tarihi:18.08.2017).
• Rodham, Hillary, “Clinton’s Visits”, Office Of The Historian, Department Of State, https://history.state.gov/Departmenthistory/Travels/Secretary/Clinton-Hillary-Rodham (Erişim Tarihi:18.08.2017).
• The National Security Strategy Of The United States, “Overview Of America’s International Strategy”, September 2002, Http://Nssarchive.Us/National-Security-Strategy-2002/ (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• The White House, “U.S. Strategy Toward Sub-Saharan Africa”, Washington Dc, June 14, 2012, https://obamawhitehouse.Archives.Gov/Sites/Default/Files/Docs/Africa_Strategy_2.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi:19.08.2017).
• Unified Combatant Commands, U.S. Department Of Defense, https://www.defense.gov/ (Erişim Tarihi: 22.04.2017).
• United Nations Department Of Economic And Social Affairs, Population Division (2013), “World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, Highlights And Advance Tables”, http://esa.un.org/Wpp/Documentation/Pdf/Wpp2012_Highlights.Pdf (Erişim Tarihi: 07.05.2015).
• U.S. Department Of State, Office Of The Historian, “A Guide To The United States’ History Of Recognition, Diplomatic, And Consular Relations, By Country, Since 1776: Liberia”, https://history.state.gov/Countries/Liberia (Erişim Tarihi: 09.01. 2016).
• U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum & Other Liquids, https://www.eia.gov/Dnav/Pet/Pet_Move_Neti_Dc_Nus-Z00_Mbblpd_M.Htm (Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2018).
• Ward, William “The House Appropriations Committee At A Hearing On The U.S. Africa Command”, March 19, 2009, http://www.Africom.Mil/Media-Room/Transcript/ 6558/Transcript-Ward-Testifies-To-House-Appropriations- (Erişim Tarihi: 23.04.2017).