Abstract
The increasing popularity of the feminist movement in the North America in 1960’s and 1970’s did not take long before effecting Jewish tradition. While roles of women in American social life changed, Jewish women began to question and criticize the situation of women in Jewish social and religious life. By introducing the growing post-modern research approaches into feminist questions and critics, Jewish feminism at this point, as a critical thinking method, is reconfiguring the tradition from its foundations. The feminist influence can be felt even among the most traditional groups. The aim in this article is to examine the process of transformation in Jewish feminism beginning as the equality demands, and in time turning to attempts to re-constitute the tradition.
The first effect of feminism among Jewish groups began through the publications of Jewish women which criticized the tradition. Rachel Adler argued that the asymmetry between genders appeared at Mount Sinai and existed throughout Jewish history. Judith Plaskow pointed that feminist critics claiming social reformation must focus on Jewish theology which is the basis of the problem. Tamar Ross suggested alternative Bible interpretations to eliminate the patriarchal attitudes. Although it is not possible to sum up Jewish feminist researches with these women’s works, Adler, Plaskow and Ross are among pioneer names. As we cannot talk about a singular feminism, it is neither possible to discuss Jewish feminist researchers as a unified group. While writing from within Orthodox, Reform, Conservative and Reconstructive groups, even though these women have different approaches and priorities, they all have a common purpose which is to improve women’s position within Jewish tradition.
This research first addresses the encounter of Jewish tradition with feminist movement. In this first period, reasons that the tradition was criticized were usually asymmetries between genders in Halakha. They demanded changes in religious practices to remove these inequalities. As a result, some reformative actions came up such as creating Bible study groups, updating prayer language and producing rituals for women. After pointing out this critical period, the questioning and then refusal of traditional authority of Bible, rabbinic tradition and Halakha among Jewish feminists are discussed. The feminist researches worked to expose the patriarchal structure within the foundations of Jewish theology such as the language and images about God, place of Torah in Judaism, God-human relationship, and chosen people of Israel. Even those in the most traditional Orthodox groups openly expressed that Torah was a patriarchal text. These discussions led to the conclusion that the authority of Torah comes from the society, not God. Then, the article discusses the approaches of Jewish feminists to solve the problem of ignoring women in historical records. By working to form a Jewish tradition including women, the aim was to fill in the lost pieces. The most interesting approach used for this purpose is to refer to sources other than Talmudic texts through interdisciplinary methods. These works making gender the main analytical category, on one hand undermine the authority of the tradition, on the other hand, provide new perspectives for the understanding of the tradition.
To sum up, by applying feminist thought to Jewish tradition, Judaism are being re-formed from its foundations. Jewish theology and law produced through readings of traditional texts yield to the recovering of non-Talmudic sources through an interdisciplinary approach. This change in method dislocated the center from classical texts to genuine interdisciplinary research using gender as an analytical category.