Physiopathology of Wound Healing in Central Nervous System

Year 2023, , 70 - 77, 01.03.2023

Cemre Aydeğer , Hüseyin Avni Eroğlu

https://doi.org/10.52794/hujpharm.1140957

Abstract

Wound healing refers to regeneration of damaged tissue under various circumstances and activation of specific physiologic mechanisms. A wound is an immediate onset of tissue damage, contusion, or degeneration. Wounds are common pathological actions of body. After wounds happened, they should lean on healing at specific processes. Wound healing contains 4 phases initially as follows: haemostasias, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling. Novel studies demonstrated those 4 phases with dermis wound healing process. Nevertheless, every tissue has its own healing pattern. Especially central nervous system differs from dermis in healing process. Therefore, the physiopathological wound healing mechanisms of central nervous system have been referred under novel information in this review. Healing of central nervous system is a complicated process, and the mechanisms of healing are still lacking due to several bunch of studies. Thus, clarification of underlying mechanisms of healing in central nervous system is indispensable for the sufferers.

Keywords

Wound healing, Central nerve system regeneration, Neuron, Glial scar

References

• Lazarus GS, Cooper DM, Knighton DR, Margolis DJ, Percoraro RE, Rodeheaver G, vd. Definitions and guidelines for assessment of wounds and evaluation of healing. Wound Repair Regen 1994, 2:165–70. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1524-475X.1994.20305.X.
• Barku VYA. Wound Healing: Contributions from Plant Secondary Metabolite Antioxidants. Wound Heal - Curr Perspect 2019. https://doi.org/10.5772/INTECHOPEN.81208.
• Frykberg RG, Banks J. Challenges in the Treatment of Chronic Wounds. Adv Wound Care 2015, 4:560. https://doi.org/10.1089/WOUND.2015.0635.
• Przekora A. A Concise Review on Tissue Engineered Artificial Skin Grafts for Chronic Wound Treatment: Can We Reconstruct Functional Skin Tissue In Vitro? Cells 2020, 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9071622.
• Diegelmann RF, Evans MC. Wound Healing: An Overview of Acute, Fibrotic and Delayed Healing. Front Biosci 2004, 9:283–9.
• Rodrigues M, Kosaric N, Bonham CA, Gurtner GC. Wound healing: A cellular perspective. Physiol Rev 2019, 99:665–706. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00067.2017.
• Enoch S, Leaper DJ. Basic science of wound healing. Surgery 2008, 26:31–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpsur.2007.11.005.
• Wang X, Balaji S, Steen EH, Li H, Rae MM, Blum AJ, vd. T Lymphocytes Attenuate Dermal Scarring by Regulating Inflammation, Neovascularization, and Extracellular Matrix Remodeling. Adv wound care 2019, 8:527–37. https://doi.org/10.1089/WOUND.2019.0981.
• Raziyeva K, Kim Y, Zharkinbekov Z, Kassymbek K, Jimi S, Saparov A. Immunology of Acute and Chronic Wound Healing. Biomolecules 2021,11. https://doi.org/10.3390/BIOM11050700.
• Tang D, Kang R, Coyne CB, Zeh HJ, Lotze MT. PAMPs and DAMPs: signal 0s that spur autophagy and immunity. Immunol Rev 2012, 249:158–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1600-065X.2012.01146.X.
• Marr AL, Coronado VG. Central Nervous System Injury Surveillance Data Submission Standards — 2002 Compiled and Edited by. Inj Prev 2002.
• Gadani SP, Walsh JT, Lukens JR, Kipnis J. Dealing with Danger in the CNS: The Response of the Immune System to Injury. Neuron 2015,87:47. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2015.05.019.
• Mukherjee N, Adak A, Ghosh S. Recent trends in the development of peptide and protein-based hydrogel therapeutics for the healing of CNS injury. 10046 | Soft Matter 2020, 16:10046. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0sm00885k.
• Wyndaele M, Wyndaele JJ. Incidence, prevalence and epidemiology of spinal cord injury: what learns a worldwide literature survey? Spinal Cord 2006 449 2006, 44:523–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3101893.
• Debaun MR, Kirkham FJ. Central nervous system complications and management in sickle cell disease. Blood 2016, 127:829–38. https://doi.org/10.1182/BLOOD-2015-09-618579.
• Stroncek JD, Reichert WM. Overview of wound healing in different tissue types. Indwelling Neural Implant. Strateg. Contend. with Vivo Environ., 2007, 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420009309.pt1.
• Kaplani K, Koutsi S, Armenis V, Skondra FG, Karantzelis N, Champeris Tsaniras S, vd. Wound healing related agents: Ongoing research and perspectives. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018, 129:242–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDR.2018.02.007.
• Hernandez-Ontiveros DG, Tajiri N, Acosta S, Giunta B, Tan J, Borlongan C V. Microglia activation as a biomarker for traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 2013, 4 MAR:30. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNEUR.2013.00030/BIBTEX.
• Giovannoni F, Quintana FJ. The Role of Astrocytes in CNS Inflammation. Trends Immunol 2020, 41:805–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IT.2020.07.007.
• Clark DPQ, Perreau VM, Shultz SR, Brady RD, Lei E, Dixit S, vd. Inflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury: Roles for Toxic A1 Astrocytes and Microglial-Astrocytic Crosstalk. Neurochem Res 2019;44:1410–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11064-019-02721-8.
• Shlobin NA, Har-Even M, Itsekson-Hayosh Z, Harnof S, Pick CG. Role of Thrombin in Central Nervous System Injury and Disease. Biomolecules 2021,11. https://doi.org/10.3390/BIOM11040562.
• Yang D, Han Z, Oppenheim JJ. Alarmins and immunity. Immunol Rev 2017, 280:41–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/IMR.12577.
• Guo Q, Zhao Y, Li J, Liu J, Yang X, Guo X, vd. Induction of alarmin S100A8/A9 mediates activation of aberrant neutrophils in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Cell Host Microbe 2021, 29:222. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHOM.2020.12.016.
• Tran AP, Warren PM, Silver J. New insights into glial scar formation after spinal cord injury. Cell Tissue Res 2022, 387:319–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00441-021-03477-W.
• Nicaise AM, D’Angelo A, Ionescu RB, Krzak G, Willis CM, Pluchino S. The role of neural stem cells in regulating glial scar formation and repair. Cell Tissue Res 2021 3873 2021, 387:399–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00441-021-03554-0.
• Cirillo C, Brihmat N, Castel-Lacanal E, Le Friec A, Barbieux-Guillot M, Raposo N, Pariente J, Viguier A, Simonetta-Moreau M, Albucher JF, Olivot JM, Desmoulin F, Marque P, Chollet F, Loubinoux I. Post-stroke remodeling processes in animal models and humans. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2020, 40:3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X19882788.
• Shechter R, Schwartz M. CNS sterile injury: just another wound healing? Trends Mol Med 2013, 19:135–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MOLMED.2012.11.007.
• Heindryckx F, Li JP. Role of proteoglycans in neuro-inflammation and central nervous system fibrosis. Matrix Biol 2018, 68–69:589–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATBIO.2018.01.015.
• Hollis ER. Axon Guidance Molecules and Neural Circuit Remodeling After Spinal Cord Injury. Neurotherapeutics 2016, 13:360–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13311-015-0416-0.
• Sims SK, Wilken-Resman B, Smith CJ, Mitchell A, McGonegal L, Sims-Robinson C. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Nerve Growth Factor Therapeutics for Brain Injury: The Current Translational Challenges in Preclinical and Clinical Research. Neural Plast 2022, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3889300.
• Liu W, Wang X, O’Connor M, Wang G, Han F. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Its Potential Therapeutic Role in Stroke Comorbidities. Neural Plast 2020, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1969482.
• Fletcher JL, Murray SS, Xiao J. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Central Nervous System Myelination: A New Mechanism to Promote Myelin Plasticity and Repair. Int J Mol Sci 2018,19:4131. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS19124131.
• Ribas VT, Costa MR. Gene manipulation strategies to identify molecular regulators of axon regeneration in the central nervous system. Front Cell Neurosci 2017,11:231. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNCEL.2017.00231/BIBTEX.
• Apte RS, Chen DS, Ferrara N. VEGF in Signaling and Disease: Beyond Discovery and Development. Cell 2019, 176:1248–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2019.01.021.
• Rattner A, Williams J, Nathans J. Roles of HIFs and VEGF in angiogenesis in the retina and brain. J Clin Invest 2019, 129:3807–20. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI126655.
• Geiseler SJ, Morland C. The Janus Face of VEGF in Stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2018, Vol 19, Page 1362 2018, 19:1362. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS19051362.
• Blanquet PR. Casein kinase 2 as a potentially important enzyme in the nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 2000, 60:211–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0082(99)00026-X.
• Bastian C, Quinn J, Tripathi A, Aquila D, McCray A, Dutta R, vd. CK2 inhibition confers functional protection to young and aging axons against ischemia by differentially regulating the CDK5 and AKT signaling pathways. Neurobiol Dis 2019, 126:47–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NBD.2018.05.011.
• Holahan MR. A shift from a pivotal to supporting role for the growth-associated protein (GAP-43) in the coordination of axonal structural and functional plasticity. Front Cell Neurosci 2017, 11:266. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNCEL.2017.00266/BIBTEX.
• Hiew LF, Poon CH, You HZ, Lim LW. TGF-β/Smad Signalling in Neurogenesis: Implications for Neuropsychiatric Diseases. Cells 2021, 10:1382. https://doi.org/10.3390/CELLS10061382.
• Fukushima T, Liu RY, Byrne JH. Transforming growth factor-β2 modulates synaptic efficacy and plasticity and induces phosphorylation of CREB in hippocampal neurons. Hippocampus 2007, 17:5–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/HIPO.20243.
• Buckwalter MS, Yamane M, Coleman BS, Ormerod BK, Chin JT, Palmer T, vd. Chronically Increased Transforming Growth Factor-β1 Strongly Inhibits Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Aged Mice. Am J Pathol 2006, 169:154–64. https://doi.org/10.2353/AJPATH.2006.051272.
• Li WY, Fu XM, Wang ZD, Li ZG, Ma D, Sun P, Liu GB, Zhu XF, Wang Y. Krüppel-like factor 7 attenuates hippocampal neuronal injury after traumatic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 2022, 17:661. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.320991.
• Moskowitz MA, Lo EH, Iadecola C. The Science of Stroke: Mechanisms in Search of Treatments. Neuron 2010, 67:181–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2010.07.002.
• Denoth-Lippuner A, Jessberger S. Formation and integration of new neurons in the adult hippocampus. Nat Rev Neurosci 2021, 22:223–36. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-021-00433-z.
• Burda JE, Sofroniew M V. Reactive Gliosis and the Multicellular Response to CNS Damage and Disease. Neuron 2014, 81:229–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2013.12.034.