İşyerindeki Cinsiyet Önyargısının ve Yatay Düşmanlığın Kültürel Kökleri

Year 2024, , 341 - 362, 29.06.2024

Özge Yanıkoglu

https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.1384483

Abstract

Sağlıklı bir iş yeri, üst, ast veya aynı seviyedeki iş arkadaşları fark etmeksizin herkesin her iki cinsiyetle de barış içinde çalışabildiği bir ortam olduğu sürece mümkündür. Ne yazık ki, bu idealin gerçekleşmesi zordur ve durum, pek çok sektörde temsil edilmemeleri nedeniyle kadınlar için daha da zorlayıcıdır. Birçok araştırma, özellikle yönetim pozisyonundaki kadınların astları tarafından önyargılı değerlendirmelere maruz kaldığını ortaya koymuştur. Kültürel bağlamı anlamak, İş yerindeki cinsiyet önyargısının varlığını, yaygınlığını ve etkisini tam olarak kavrayabilmek için hayati önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışma, çalışanların yönetici cinsiyet tercihlerini şekillendirebilecek kültürel faktörleri tarafsız bir şekilde incelemeyi ve yönetici cinsiyetine yönelik olası önyargıları kültürel bir bakış açısıyla araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma hedeflerine ulaşmak için, İstanbul'da 302 profesyonele açık uçlu bir anket uygulanmıştır. Sonuçlar, her iki cinsiyetten bireyler arasında kadın yöneticilere karşı yaygın bir önyargının olduğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca, çalışma kadınların kendi cinsiyetlerinden meslektaşlarına ve üstlerine daha önyargılı yaklaşımlar sergileme eğiliminde olduğunu ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu içgörüler, kültürel bir lensle analiz edilmiş ve yönetim için öneriler sunulmuştur.

Keywords

Yönetimde Cinsiyet, Cinsiyet Önyargısı, Yatay Düşmanlık, Kalıplaşmış Cinsiyet Rolleri

The Cultural Roots of Gender Bias and Horizontal Hostility in the Workplace

Abstract

A healthy workplace is an environment where everyone can work peacefully with both sexes, regardless of their roles as leaders, subordinates, or colleagues. Unfortunately, achieving this ideal remains elusive, and the situation is more challenging for women, due to their underrepresentation in many industries. Studies have revealed that especially women in management positions are subject to biased evaluations by their subordinates, colleagues, and managers. A deep understanding of the cultural underpinnings is essential to fully grasp the existence, prevalence and influence of gender bias in the workplace. Thus, this study aims to impartially investigate the cultural factors that may shape employees' preferences for the gender of their managers, alongside exploring potential biases towards managerial gender from a cultural standpoint. To achieve the research goals, an open-ended survey was administered to 302 professionals in Istanbul. The results indicate a prevalent bias against female managers by individuals of both genders. Moreover, the study uncovers that women are prone to harboring more prejudiced views towards their female peers and superiors. These insights are analyzed through a cultural lens, and recommendations for management are proposed.

Keywords

Gender in Management, Gender Bias, Horizontal Hostility, Stereotypical Sex Roles

References

• Abadi, M., Dirani, K. M., & Fatemeh, F. D. (2020). Women in leadership: A systematic literature review of Middle Eastern women managers' careers from NHRD and institutional theory perspectives. Human Resource Development International, 25(1), 19-39. 10.1080/13678868.2020.1840847
• Albert, A. A., & Porter, J. R. (1983). Age patterns in the development of children's gender-role stereotypes. Sex Roles, 9, 59-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00303110
• Avolio, B. J., Sosik, J. J., Jung, D. I., & Berson, Y. (2003). Leadership models, methods, and applications. In W.C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp.277-307). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Aydın, D., & Çam, M.S. (2016). Bilgi toplumu dönüşümünde Türkiye’de kadın olmak. [being a woman in Turkey in the information society transformation]. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Special Issue (November), 224-247.
• Basford T. E., Offermann, L. R., & Behrend, T. S. (2014). Do you see what ı see? perceptions of gender microaggressions in the workplace. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 340-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313511420
• Bearman, S., & Marielle, A. (2014). Girls, women, and internalized sexism. ın e. j. r. david (ed.), ınternalized oppression: The Psychology of Marginalized Groups (pp. 191-225). Springer Publishing.
• Bierema, L. L. (2016). Womens leadership: Troubling notions of the "ideal" (male) leader. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 18(2), 119-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223166413
• Bordini, G. S., & Sperb, T. M. (2013). Sexual double standard: A review of the literature between 2001 and 2010. Sexuality & Culture, 17(4), 686-704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-012-9163-0
• Boyatzis, R. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. SAGE Publications.
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
• Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. Consulting Psychologists Press.
• Crothers, L. M., Lipinski, J., & Minutolo, M. C. (2009). Cliques, rumors, and gossip by the water cooler: Female bullying in the workplace. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 12(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/10887150902886423
• Desilver, D. (2018). Women scarce at top of U.S. business – and in the jobs that lead there. Pew Research Center. Retrieved May 16, 2022 from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/30/women-scarce-at-top-of-u-s-business-and-in-the-jobs-that-lead-there
• Diehl, A. B., Stephenson, A. L., Dzubinski, L. M., & Wang, D. C. (2020). Measuring the invisible: Development and multi‐industry validation of the gender bias scale for women leaders. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 31(3), 249–280. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21389
• Diehl, A. B., & Dzubinski., L. M. (2016). Making the invisible visible: a cross-sector analysis of gender-based leadership barriers. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 27(2), 181–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21248
• Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
• Eden, D., & Leviatan, U. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 736-741. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.60.6.736
• Ellemers, N., Van den Heuvel, H., De Gilder, D., Maass A., & Bonvini, A. (2004). The underrepresentation of women in science: Differential commitment or the Queen-bee syndrome? British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 315-338. https://doi.org/10.1348/0144666042037999
• Foschi, M. (2009). Gender, performance level, and competence standards in task groups. Social Science Research, 33, 447-457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.10.004
• Fox-Kirk, W., Gardiner, R. A. Finn, H., & Chisholm, J. (2020). Genderwashing: The myth of equality. Human Resource Development International, 23(5), 586-597. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2020.1801065
• Frankforter, S. A. (1996). The progression of women beyond the glass ceiling. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 121-132.
• Gard, M. G., & Kring, A. M. (2007). Sex differences in the time course of emotion. Emotion, 2, 429-437. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.429
• Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1993). Job performance attributions and career advancement prospects: An examination of gender and race effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 273-297. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1993.1034
• Guest, G., MacQueen, K., & Namey, E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis. SAGE Publications.
• Heilman, M. E., & Guzzo, R. A. (1978). The perceived cause of work success as a mediator of sex discrimination in organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 21, 346-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(78)90058-2
• Heim, P., & Murphy, S. (2003). In the company of women: Turning workplace conflict into powerful alliances. Penguin Putnam.
• House, R, Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Leadership, culture, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Sage Publications.
• Huang, G. (2016). Why some women still prefer male bosses and what we should do about it. Forbes. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/georgenehuang/2016/06/02/why-some-women-still-prefer-male-bosses-and-what-we-should-do-about-it/?sh=1c9bad42ebb0
• Hutchinson, M, Vickers, M., Jackson, D., & Wilkes, L. (2006). Workplace bullying in nursing: Toward a more critical organizational perspective. Nursing Inquiry, 13(2), 118-126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1800.2006.00314.x
• International Labour Organization [ILO] (2017). Breaking barriers: Unconscious gender bias in the workplace. International Labour Organization. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---act_emp/documents/publication/wcms_601276.pdf
• Johnson, Z., & Mathur-Helm, B. (2011). Experiences with queen bees: A South African study exploring the reluctance of women executives to promote other women in the workplace. South African Journal of Business Management, 42(4), 47-56. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajbm.v42i4.504
• Jones, K. P., Peddie, C. I., Gilrane, V. L., King, E. B., & Gray, A. L. (2016). Not so subtle: A meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle and overt discrimination. Journal of Management, 42(6), 1588–1613. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313506466
• Jones, S. J., & Palmer, E. M. (2011). Glass ceilings and catfights: Career barriers for professional women in academia. Advancing Women in Leadership, 31, 189-198. https://doi.org/10.21423/awlj-v31.a78
• Jost, J. T., Pelham, B. W., & Carvallo, M. R. (2002). Non-conscious forms of system justification: Implicit and behavioral preferences for higher status groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(6), 586–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00505-X
• Kabasakal H., & Bodur, M. (2007). Leadership and culture in Turkey: A Multi-faceted phenomenon, culture and leadership across the world. In J. S. Chhokar, F. C. Brodbeck, & R. J. House (Eds.), The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies (pp.833-874), Lawrence Albaum Associates, Inc.
• Kagnicioglu, D. (2017). The role of women in working life in Turkey. WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, 226, 349-358. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP170301
• Kanter, R. M. (1993). Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books.
• Kay, A. C., & Friesen, J. (2011). On social stability and social change: Understanding when system justification does and does not occur. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(6), 360–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411422059
• Kennedy, F. (1970). Institutionalized oppression vs. the female. In R. Morgan (Ed.), Sisterhood is Powerful: an Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movement (pp.438-446). Random House.
• Kirchmeyer, C. (2002). Gender differences in managerial careers: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Journal of Business Ethics, 37, 5-24. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014721900246
• Küçük, S. (2013). Being a woman in Turkey and in the Middle East. Turkish Policy Quarterly, 11(4), 23–43. Levesque R. J. R. (2011). Sex roles and gender roles. In R. J. R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Adolescence (pp. 2622-2623). Springer.
• Litwin, A. H., & Hallstein, L. O. (2007). Shadows and silences: How women’s positioning and unspoken friendship rules in organizational settings cultivate difficulties among some women at work. Women Studies in Communication, 30, 111-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2007.10162507
• Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership or how to succeed in business without being one of the boys. Times Books, New York, NY.
• Loya, B. N., Cowan, G., & Walters, C. (2006). The role of social comparison and body consciousness in women’s hostility toward women. Sex Roles, 54, 575-583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9024-0
• Mackinnon, C. A. (1979). Sexual harassment of working women: A case of sex discrimination. Yale University Press.
• Malloy, A. (2020). Exploring gender-leader ımplicit bias in women leaders: A system justification approach to women leaders' gender and leader identities. PhD dissertation, University of St. Thomas, MN.
• Mizrahi, R. (2004). Hostility to the presence of women: Why women undermine each other in the workplace and the consequences for title vii. Yale Law Journal, 113(7), 1579-1622.
• Mooney, N. (2005). I can’t believe she did that!, St. Martin’s Press.
• Namie, G. (2021). 2021 WBI U.S. Workplace bullying survey. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://workplacebullying.org/2021-wbi-survey/
• Nasir, J. J. (2009). The status of women under islamic law and modern islamic legislation. Brill.
• Netchaeva, E., Kouchaki, M., & Sheppard, L.D. (2015). A man’s (precarious) place: Men’s experienced threat and self-assertive reactions to female superiors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 1247-1259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215593491
• Paris, L. D., Howell, J. P., Dorfman, P. W., & Hanges, P. J. (2009). Preferred leadership prototypes of male and female leaders in 27 countries. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(8), 1396–1405. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2008.114
• Purpora, C., Blegen, M. A., & Stotts, N. A. (2012). Horizontal violence among hospital staff nurses related to oppressed self or oppressed group. Journal of Professional Nursing, 28(5), 306-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2012.01.001
• Ragins, B. R. and Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 51-88. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.105.1.51
• Ridgeway C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 637-655. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00233
• Riffkin, R. (2014). Americans still prefer a male boss to a female boss. Gallup. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://news.gallup.com/poll/178484/americans-prefer-male-boss-female-boss.aspx
• Roberts, S. J. (1983). Oppressed group behavior: Implications for nursing. Advances in Nursing Sciences, 5(4), 21–30.
• Rooddehghan, Z., ParsaYekta, Z., & Nasrabadi, A. N. (2015). Nurses, the oppressed oppressors: A qualitative study. Global Journal of Health Science, 7(5), 239-254. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v7n5p239
• Roth, P. L., Purvis K. L., & Bobko, P. (2012). A meta-analysis of gender group differences for measures of job performance in field studies. Journal of Management, 38, 719-739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310374774
• Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over‐represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16(2), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00433.x
• Seiter, E. (1986). Stereotypes and the media: A re-evaluation. Journal of Communication, 3(6), 14-26.
• Seo, G., Huang, W., & Han, S. C. (2017). Conceptual review of underrepresentation of women in senior leadership positions from a perspective of gendered social status in the workplace: Implication for HRD research and practice. Human Resource Development Review, 16(1), 35–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484317690063
• Smith, J. S., Brescoll, V. L., & Thomas, E. L. (2016). Constrained by emotion: Women, leadership, and expressing emotion in the workplace. In M. Connerley & J. Wu (Eds.), Handbook on Well-Being of Working Women (pp.209-224), Springer.
• Stoker, J. I., Van der Velde, M., & Lammers, J. (2012). Factors relating to managerial stereotypes: The role of gender of the employee and the manager and management gender ratio. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27, 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9210-0
• Swim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the attitudes toward women and modern sexism scales. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
• Tanenbaum, L. (2002). Catfight: Women and competition. Seven Stories Press.
• Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(7), 778–793.
• Thomas, S. P. (2001). Climbing out of the crab bucket: Strategies for resolving conflict among nurses. In N. L. Chaska (Ed.), The Nursing profession: Tomorrow and beyond (pp. 723-733). Sage Publication.
• Tokageder (2014). Genç kadınlar ve istihdam araştırma raporu. [Young women and employment survey report]. Toplumsal Konuları Araştırma ve Geliştirme Derneği [Social Issues Research and Development Association]. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://www.undp.org/tr/turkiye/publications/gen%C3%A7-kad%C4%B1nlar-ve-i%CC%87stihdam-ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rma-raporu
• Tolbert, P. S., Graham, M. E., & Andrews, A. O. (1999). Group gender composition and work group relations. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender & work (pp.325-346). Sage Publication.
• Torino, G. C. (2017). Subtle sexism. In K. Nadal (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of psychology and gender (pp.1642-1643). Sage Publication.
• UNECO (2021). Women a minority in Industry 4.0 fields. Unesco. Retrieved June 2, 2022 from https://en.unesco.org/news/women-minority-industry-40-fields
• Wagner, D. G., & Berger, J. (1997). Gender and interpersonal task behaviors: Status expectation accounts. Routledge.
• Watkins, M. B., Simmons, A., & Umphress, E. (2019). It’s not black and white: Toward a contingency perspective on the consequences of being a token. Academy of Management Perspectives, 33(3), 334-365. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2015.0154
• Wellington, S., Kropf, M. B., & Gerkovich, P. R. (2003). What’s holding women back? Harvard Business Review, 81(6), 18–19.
• Weyer, B. (2007). Twenty years later: Explaining the persistence of the glass ceiling for women leaders. Women in Management Review, 22, 482-496. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420710778718
• Worldbank (2023). Gender data portal – Turkey. Wordlbank. Retrieved April 2, 2024 from https://genderdata.worldbank.org/countries/turkiye/#:~:text=In%20Turkiye%2C%20the%20labor%20force,has%20remained%20roughly%20the%20same
• Yenilmez, M. İ. (2015). Female employment and gender inequality: Challenges and opportunities in Turkey. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 26(1), 131–147.