Hayatı Yitirmek: Alzheimer Hastalığında Otobiyografik Bellek Üzerine Bir Derleme

Year 2021, Volume: 41 Issue: 1, 61 - 81, 08.02.2021

Öykü Aydın , Betül Beyza Cengil Hande Kaynak

https://doi.org/10.26650/SP2020-0081

Abstract

Alzheimer hastalığı, progresif ve nörodejeneratif bir beyin hastalığı olup yaşlı yetişkinler arasında en yaygın görülen demans tipidir. Alzheimer hastalığı, diğer demans tiplerinin aksine progresif bellek bozulmaları ile karakterizedir. Alzheimer hastalığında görülen bellek bozulmalarından biri olan otobiyografik bellek ise kişinin yaşamı boyunca meydana gelen olayların depolandığı bellek olarak tanımlanır. Alzheimer hastalığında otobiyografik bellek süreçlerinde gözlemlenen düşüşün bir sonucu, geçmiş dönemden ziyade, yakın dönem otobiyografik anıların geri getirilmesinde yaşanan zorluktur. Hem olaysal hem de anlamsal bileşenleri içeren bu bellek tipi, kişinin benlik kavramı için de önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Alzheimer hastalarında otobiyografik bellek süreçlerinin güncel alan yazında nasıl ele alındığını incelemektir. Derlemenin giriş kısmında Alzheimer hastalığı ve hastalık ile ilişkilendirilen bilişsel süreçler, otobiyografik bellek performansının benlik için önemiyle birlikte detaylı olarak sunulmuştur. Derlemenin ikinci kısmında Alzheimer hastalarında otobiyografik bellek bozulmaları tartışılmış ve otobiyografik belleğe etki eden duygu ve koku duyusu gibi faktörlerden ilgili nöral yapılar ile birlikte bahsedilmiştir. Bu bağlamda sırasıyla duygusal boyutun (örneğin, değerlik) otobiyografik anıların oluşumu ve geri getirilmesi üzerindeki etkisi tartışılmış ve otobiyografik belleğin koku uyaranlarıyla nasıl çalışıldığı ele alınmıştır. Otobiyografik bellek ve duygu arasındaki ilişki üzerine yapılan çalışmalar, Alzheimer hastalığında otobiyografik anıların içeriğinin olumluya doğru kaydığını, bu kapsamda Alzheimer hastalarının daha olumlu otobiyografik anılarını hatırladıklarını göstermiştir. Ek olarak, koku uyaranlarının sözel ve görsel uyaranlardan daha fazla otobiyografik anı üretmeye neden olduğu bulunmuştur. Mevcut derlemenin sonuç kısmı, gelecek çalışmalara yön verebilecek bazı önerilere ayrılmıştır. Örneğin, Alzheimer hastalığının farklı evrelerinde otobiyografik belleğin incelenmesi ve bellek performansının ilgili değişkenler açısından karşılaştırılması, Alzheimer hastalığında otobiyografik belleğin doğası hakkında ayrıntılı bulgular sağlamanın yollarından biri olabilir.

Keywords

Alzheimer hastalığı, otobiyografik bellek, duygu, koku duyusu

Losing the Life: A Review on Autobiographical Memory in Alzheimer’s Disease

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common type of dementia among older adults, is a progressive and neurodegenerative brain disease. AD is characterized by progressive memory impairments, but not other types of dementia. Autobiographical memory (AM) is defined as episodes recollected from individuals’ life, and it is one of the memory systems impaired in AD. One consequence of AM decline in AD is difficulties in the retrieval of recent AMs rather than past ones. AM contains both episodic and semantic components, and it is crucial for self-concept. The aim of the present study is to review the current understanding of AM in people with AD. In the introduction part of the review, AD and its cognitive correlates are presented in detail, with how AM performance is important for the self. In the second part of the review, AM deteriorations in patients with AD are discussed. Factors, such as emotion and olfaction, affecting AM are mentioned along with the neural substrates. In this regard, the effect of the emotional dimension (e.g., valence) on the formation and retrieval of AMs is discussed and how AM is studied with olfactory stimuli is presented, respectively. Studies on the link between AM and emotion have shown that there is a positive shift of AM in AD, indicating that patients with AD remember their AMs more positively. In addition, olfactory stimuli evoke more AMs than verbal and visual stimuli. The conclusion section of the current review is devoted to some recommendations that might guide future research. For instance, stage-by-stage investigation of AM in AD and the comparison of them in relation to relevant variables could be one way of providing detailed findings on the nature of AM in AD.

Keywords

Alzheimer’s disease, autobiographical memory, emotion, olfaction

References

• Addis, D. R., Knapp, K., Roberts, R. P., & Schacter, D. L. (2012). Routes to the past: Neural substrates of direct and generative autobiographical memory retrieval. Neuroimage, 59(3), 2908-2922. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.066 google scholar
• Addis, D. R., & Tippett, L. (2004). Memory of myself: Autobiographical memory and identity in Alzheimer’s disease. Memory, 12(1), 56-74. doi: 10.1080/09658210244000423 google scholar
• Akdemir, A., Cangöz, B., Örsel, S., & Selekler, K. (2007). Hafif kognitif bozukluğu olan hastalarla Alzheimer tipi demans hastalarının örtük bellek performansı açısından karşılaştırılması [A comparison of implicit memory performance in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer type dementia patients]. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 18(2), 118-128. google scholar
• Alzheimer’s Association. (2020). 2020 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 16(3), 391-460. doi: 10.1002/alz.12068 google scholar
• Arshamian, A., Iannilli, E., Gerber, J. C., Willander, J., Persson, J., Seo, H. -S., Hummel, T., & Larsson, M. (2013). The functional neuroanatomy of odor evoked autobiographical memories cued by odors and words. Neuropsychologia, 1, 123-131. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.10.023 google scholar
• Barnabe, A., Whitehead, V., Pilon, R., Arsenault-Lapierre, G., & Chertkow, H. (2012). Autobiographical memory in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: A comparison between the Levine and Kopelman interview methodologies. Hippocampus, 22, 1809-1825. google scholar
• Barsalou, L. W. (1988). The content and organization of autobiographical memories. In U. Neisser & E. Winograd (Eds.), Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory (pp. 193-243). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/ CBO9780511664014.009 google scholar
• Berntsen, D. (2010). The unbidden past: Involuntary autobiographical memories as a basic mode of remembering. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(3), 138-142. doi: 10.1177/0963721410370301 google scholar
• Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2002). Emotionally charged autobiographical memories across lifespan: The recall of happy, sad, traumatic and involuntary memories. Psychology of Aging, 17(4), 636352. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.636 google scholar
• Binetti, G., Cappa, S. F., Magni, E., Padovani, A., Bianchetti, A., & Trabucchi, M. (1996). Disorders of visual and spatial perception in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 777, 221-225. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb34422.x google scholar
• Braak, H., & Braak, E. (1991). Neuropathological stageing of Alzheimer-related changes. Acta Neuropathologica, 82, 239-259. google scholar
• Bruno, D., Suppicich, F., Schurmann-Vignaga, S., Klein, A., Aiskovich, M., Torralva, T., Manes, F., Pontello, N., & Roca, M. (2020). Cognitive stimulation of autobiographic and emotional memory in a patient with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal ofPsychiatry and Psychology Research, 4(1), 210-218. google scholar
• Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval of emotional memories. Psychological Bulletin, 133(5), 761-779. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.761 google scholar
• Cabeza, R., & St Jacques, P. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of autobiographical memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(5), 219-227. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2007.02.005 google scholar
• Cady, E. T., Harris, R. J., & Knappenberger, J. B. (2008). Using music to cue autobiographical memories of different lifetime periods. Psychology ofMusic, 36, 157-178. doi: 10.1177/0305735607085010. google scholar
• Can, H., İrkeç, C., & Karakaş, S. (2006). Alzheimer tipi demansın farklı evrelerinin nöropsikolojik profili [Neuropsychological profile of different stages of dementia of Alzheimer’s type]. New Symposium Journal, 44(3), 115-135. google scholar
• Can, H., & Karakaş, S. (2005). Bilişsel süreçlerde Alzheimer tipi demansa bağlı değişiklikler [Dementia of Alzheimer type-related changes in cognitive processes]. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 8, 37-47. google scholar
• Conway, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594-628. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.005 google scholar
• Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261-288. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261 google scholar
• De Simone, M. S., Fadda, L., Perri, R., Aloisi, M., Caltagirone, C., & Carlesimo, G. A. (2016). Does retrieval frequency account for the pattern of autobiographical memory loss in early Alzheimer’s disease patients? Neuropsychologia, 80, 194-200. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.11.024 google scholar
• Dolcos, F., LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2004). Interaction between the amygdala and the medial temporal lobe memory system predicts better memory for emotional events. Neuron, 42, 855-863. google scholar
• Ece, B., Demiray, B., Öner, S., & Gülgöz, S. (2019). Comparison of earliest and later autobiographical memories in young and middle-aged adults. Studies in Psychology, 39(1), 45-78. doi: 10.26650/ SP2018-0037 google scholar
• El Haj, M., & Antoine, P. (2017). Describe yourself to improve your autobiographical memory: A study in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 88, 165-172. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.01.004 google scholar
• El Haj, M., Antoine, P., Nandrino, J. L., & Kapogiannis, D. (2015). Autobiographical memory decline in Alzheimer’ disease, a theoretical and clinical overview. Ageing Research Reviews, 23, 183-192. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2015.07.001 google scholar
• El Haj, M., Boudoukha, A., Moustafa, A. A., Antoine, P., Allain, P., & Gallouj, K. (2020). “La vie en rose”: A positive shift of autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 86, 1-7. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2019.103953 google scholar
• El Haj, M., Gandolphe, M. C., Gallouj, K., Kapogiannis, D., & Antoine, P. (2017). From nose to memory: The involuntary nature of odor-evoked autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Chemical Senses, 43(1), 27-34. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjx064 google scholar
• Fleischman, D. A., & Gabrieli, J. D. (1999). Long term memory in Alzheimer’s disease. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9(2), 240-244. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80034-8 google scholar
• Gilboa, A., Ramirez, J., Köhler, S., Westmacott, R., Black, S. E., & Moscovitch, M. (2005). Retrieval of autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease: Relation to volumes of medial temporal lobe and other structures. Hippocampus, 15(4), 535-550. doi: 10.1002/hipo.20090 google scholar
• Glachet, O., Gandolphe, M. C., Gallouj, K., Antoine, P., & El Haj, M. (2018). Effects of olfactory stimulation on autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease. Geriatrie et Psychologie Neuropsychiatrie du Vieillissement, 16(3), 311-320. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2018.0748 google scholar
• Glachet, O., Moustafa, A. A., Gallouj, K., & El Haj, M. (2019). Smell your memories: Positive effect of odor exposure on recent and remote autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(6), 555-564. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2019.1586840 google scholar
• Grilli, M. D., Wank, A. A., Bercel, J. J., & Ryan, L. (2018). Evidence for reduced autobiographical memory episodic specificity in cognitively normal middle-aged and older individuals at increased risk for Alzheimer’s disease dementia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(10), 1073-1083. doi: 10.1017/S1355617718000577 google scholar
• Hebert, L. E., Weuve, J., Scherr, P. A., & Evans, D. A. (2010). Alzheimer disease in the United States (2010-2050) estimated using the 2010 census. Neurology, 80(19), 1778-1783. doi: 10.1212/ WNL.0b013e31828726f5 google scholar
• Herz, R. (2004). A naturalistic analysis of autobiographical memories triggered by olfactory visual and auditory stimuli. Chemical Senses, 39(3), 217-224. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjh025 google scholar
• Herz, R. S., Eliassen, J., Beland, S., & Souza, T. (2004). Neuroimaging evidence for emotional potency of odor-evoked memory. Neuropsychologia, 42(3), 371-378. doi: 10.1016/j. neuropsychologia.2003.08.009 google scholar
• Holland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Emotion and autobiographical memory. Physics of Life Reviews, 7, 88-131. doi: 10.1016/j.plrv.2010.01.006 google scholar
• Hou, C. E., Miller, B. L., & Kramer, J. H. (2005). Patterns of autobiographical memory loss in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 809-815. doi: 10.1002/gps.1361 google scholar
• Irish, M., Hornberger, M., Lah, S., Miller, L., Pengas, G., Nestor, P. J., Hodges, J. R., & Piguet, O. (2011). Profiles of recent autobiographical memory retrieval in semantic dementia, behavioral-variant frontotemporal dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 49, 2694-2702. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.05.017 google scholar
• Irish, M., Landin-Romero, R., Mothakunnel, A., Ramanan, S., Hsieh, S., Hodges, J. R., & Piguet, O. (2018). Evolution of autobiographical memory impairments in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia - A longitudinal neuroimaging study. Neuropsychologia, 110, 14-25. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.03.014 google scholar
• Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., O’mara, S. M., & Coen, R. F. (2010). Exploring the recollective experience during autobiographical memory retrieval in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16, 546-555. doi: 10.1017/S1355617710000172 google scholar
• Ivanoiu, A., Cooper, J. M., Shanks, M. F., & Venneri, A. (2004). Retrieval of episodic and semantic autobiographical memories in early Alzheimer’s disease and semantic dementia. Cortex, 40(1), 173-175. doi: 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70939-0 google scholar
• Ivanoiu, A., Cooper, J. M., Shanks, M. F., & Venneri, A. (2006). Patterns of impairment in autobiographical memory in the degenerative dementias constrain models of memory. Neuropsychologia, 44(10), 1936-1955. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.030 google scholar
• Ito, K., Ahadieh, S., Corrigan, B., French, J., Fullerton, T., Tensfeldt, T., & Alzheimers Disease Working Group (2010). Disease progression meta-analysis model in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 6(1), 39-53. doi: 10.1016/j.jalz.2009.05.665 google scholar
• Jahn, H. (2013). Memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(4), 445-454. google scholar
• Karakaş, S., & İrkeç, C. (2003).Alzheimer hastalığı kliniğinin nöropsikolojik profili [Neuropsychological profile of Alzheimer’s disease]. Türkiye Klinikleri Nöroloji (Journal of Neurology), 1(1), 13-22. google scholar
• Kirk, M., & Berntsen, D. (2018). A short cut to the past: Cueing via concrete objects improves autobiographical memory retrieval in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Neuropsychologia, 110, 113122. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.034 google scholar
• Kopelman, M. D., Wilson, B. A., & Baddeley, A. D. (1989). The autobiographical memory interview: A new assessment of autobiographical and personal semantic memory in amnesic patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11(5), 724-744. doi: 10.1080/01688638908400928 google scholar
• Kring, A. M., Johnson, S. L., Davison, G., & Neale, J. (2012). Abnormal psychology: Late life and neurocognitive disorders. United States: Wiley Press. google scholar
• Larsson, M., & Willander, J. (2009). Autobiographical odor memory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1170, 318-323. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-32.2009.03934.x google scholar
• Larsson, M., Willander, J., Karlsson, K., & Arshamian, A. (2014). Olfactory lover: Behavioral and neural correlates of autobiographical odor memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-5. doi: 10.3389/ fpsyg.2014.00312 google scholar
• Levine, B., Svoboda, E., Hay, J. F., & Winocur, G. (2002). Aging and autobiographical memory: Dissociationg episodic from semantic retrieval. Psychology and Aging, 17(4), 677-689. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.17.4.677 google scholar
• Leyhe, T., Müller, S., Millian, M., Eschweiler, G. W., & Saur, R. (2009). Impairment of episodic and semantic autobiographical memory in patients with mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 47(12), 2464-2469. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.04.018 google scholar
• Machado, S., Cunha, M., Minc, D., Portella, C. E., Velasques, B., Basile, L. F., Cagy, M., Piedade, R., & Ribeiro, P. (2009). Alzheimer’s disease and implicit memory. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 67, 334-342. doi: 10.1590/s0004-82x2009000200034 google scholar
• Martinelli, P., Anssens, A., Sperduti, M., & Piolino, P. (2013). The influence of normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease in autobiographical memory highly related to the self. Neuropsychology, 47(1), 69-78. doi: 10.1037/a0030453 google scholar
• Meeter, M., Eijsackers, E. V., & Mulder, J. L. (2006). Retrograde amnesia for autobiographical memories and public events in mild and moderate alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 914-927. doi: 10.1080/13803390591001043 google scholar
• Meulenbroek, O., Rijpkema, M., Kessels, R. P., Rikkert, M. G., & Fernandez, G. (2010).Autobiographical memory retrieval in patients with Alzhimer’s disease. NeuroImage, 53(1), 331-340. doi: 10.1016/j. neuroimage.2010.05.082 google scholar
• Morris, R. G., & Mograbi, D. C. (2013). Anosognosia, autobiographical memory and self knowledge in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 49, 1553-1565. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.09.006 google scholar
• Moses, A., Culpin, V., Lowe, C., & McWilliam, C. (2004). Overgenerality of autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 377-386. google scholar
• Müller, S., Saur, R., Greve, B., Melms, A., Hautzinger, M., Fallgatter, A. J., & Leyhe, T. (2012). Similar autobiographical memory impairment in long-term secondary progressive multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease. Multiple Sclerosis Journal, 19(2), 225-232. doi: 10.1177/1352458512450352 google scholar
• Öktem, Ö. (2003). Alzheimer hastalığının erken, orta ve ileri dönemlerinde genel kognitif profil [Cognitive profile in the early, middle, and advanced stages of Alzheimer’s disease]. In S. Karakaş, C. İrkeç & N. Yüksel (Eds.), Beyin ve Nöropsikoloji [Brain and Neuropsychology] (pp. 101-111). Ankara: Çizgi Tıp Yayınevi. google scholar
• Öner, S., & Gülgöz, S. (2017). Autobiographical remembering regulates emotions: A functional perspective. Memory, 26(1), 15-28. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1316510 google scholar
• Pennanen, C., Kivipelto, M., Tuomainen, S., Hartikainen, P., Hanninen, T., Laakso, M. P., Hallikainen, M., Vanhanen, M., Nissinen, A., Helkala, E. -L., Vainio, P., Vanninen, R., Partanen, K., & Soininen, H. (2004). Hippocampus and entorhinal cortex in mild cognitive impairment and early AD. Neurobiology of Aging, 25, 303-310. doi: 10.1016/S0197-4580(03)00084-8 google scholar
• Philippi, N., Botzung, A., Noblet, V., Rousseau, F., Despres, O., Cretin, B., Kremer, S., Blanc, F., & Manning, L. (2015). Impaired emotional autobiographical memory associated with right amygdalar-hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00021 google scholar
• Philippi, N., Noblet, V., Botzung, A., Despres, O., Renard, F., Sfikas, G., Cretin, B., Kremer, S., Manning, L., & Blanc, F. (2012). MRI-based volumetry correlates of autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease. Plos One, 7(10). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046200 google scholar
• Philippi, N., Roquet, D., Ben Malek, H., Noblet, V., Botzung, A., Cretin, B., & Blanc, F. (2017). Henry, where have you lost your Self? Cortex, 95, 37-50. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.06.019 google scholar
• Piefke, M., Weiss, P. H., Zilles, K., Markowitsch, H. J., & Fink, G. R. (2003). Differential remoteness and emotional tone modulate the neural correlates of autobiographical memory. Brain, 126(3), 650-658. doi: 10.1093/brain/awg064 google scholar
• Piolino, P., Desgranges, B., Belliard, S., Matuszewski, V., Lalevee, C., De La Sayette, V., & Eustache, F. (2003). Autobiographical memory and autonoetic consciousness: Triple dissociation in neurodegenerative diseases. Brain, 126, 2203-2219. doi: 10.1093/brain/awg222 google scholar
• Piolino, P., Desgranges, B., Clarys, D., Guiller-Girard, B., Taconnat, L., Isingrini, M., & Eustache, F. (2006). Autobiographical memory, autonoetic consciousness, and self-perspective in aging. Psychology and Aging, 21(3), 510-525. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.510 google scholar
• Prebble, S. C., Addis, D. R., & Tippett, L. J. (2013). Autobiographical memory and sense of self. Psychological Bulletin, 139(4), 815-840. doi: 10.1037/a0030146 google scholar
• Rubin, D. C., Groth, E., & Goldsmith, D. J. (1984). Olfactory cuing of autobiographical memory. The American Journal of Psychology, 97(4), 493-507. google scholar
• Seidl, U., Lueken, U., Thomann, P. A., Geider, J., & Schröder, J. (2011). Autobiographical memory deficits in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 27, 567-564. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2011-110014 google scholar
• Serra, L., Bozzali, M., Fadda, L., De Simone, M. S., Bruschini, M., Perri, R., Caltagirone, C., & Carlesimo, G. A. (2020). The role of hippocampus in the retrieval of autobiographical memories in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuropsychology, 14, 46-68. doi: 10.1111/jnp.12174 google scholar
• Small, B. J., Fratiglioni, L., Viitanen, M., Winblad, B., & Backman, L. (2000). The course of cognitive impairment in preclinical Alzheimer disease: Three- and 6-year follow-up of a population-based sample. Archives of Neurology, 57(6), 839-844. doi: 10.1001/archneur.57.6.839 google scholar
• Smith, A. P. R., Henson, R. N. A., Rugg, M. D., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Modulation of retrieval processing reflects accuracy of emotional source memory. Learning & Memory, 12, 472-479. doi: 10.1101/lm.84305 google scholar
• Spaan, P. E. J., Raaijmakers, J. G. W., & Jonker, C. (2003). Alzheimer’s disease versus normal ageing: A review of the efficiency of clinical and experimental memorymeasures. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(2), 216- 233. doi: 10.1076/jcen.25.2.216.13638 google scholar
• Svoboda, E., McKinnon, M., & Levine, B. (2006). The functional neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: A meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44(12), 2189-2208. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.05.023 google scholar
• Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381-402). United States: Academic Press. google scholar
• Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 26(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1037/h0080017 google scholar
• Tulving, E. (1999). On the uniqueness of episodic memory. In L. G. Nilsson & H. J. Markowitsch (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of memory (pp. 11-42). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Hubner Publishers. google scholar
• Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 1-25. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114 google scholar
• Turkish Statistical Institute. (2018). Elderly statistics 2018. https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/yayin/views/ visitorPages/yayinGoruntuleme.zul?yayin _no=474 google scholar
• Uçar-Boyraz, F., & Er, N. (2007). Alzheimer ve depresyon tanılı gruplar ile normal örneklemde, kişisel ve toplumsal olaylara ilişkin otobiyografik bellek özellikleri [Autobiographical memories for personal and public events in Alzheimer’s disease, depression, and healthy individuals]. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 22(60), 45-64. google scholar
• Velayudhan, L. (2015). Smell identification function and Alzheimer’s disease: A selective review. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 28(2), 173-179. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000146 google scholar
• Willander, J., & Larsson, M. (2006). Smell your way back to childhood: Autobiographical odor memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13, 240-244. doi: 10.3758/BF03193837 google scholar
• Williams, H. L., & Conway, M. A. (2009). Networks of autobiographical memories. In P. Boyer & J. Wertsch (Eds.), Memory in Mind and Culture (pp. 33-61). New York: Cambridge Psychology Press. google scholar
• World Health Organization. (2019, September 19). Dementia: Key facts. Retrieved from https://www. who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia1 google scholar