Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Their Health Potentials to Human Life

Year 2019, Volume: 2 Issue: 1, 54 - 66, 27.12.2019

Oluwatosin Ogunkalu

Abstract

Fish oil supplementations play major roles in the biological processes, essential dietary omega-3 fatty acids. The lower consumption of EPA and DHA are suggested to be in connection with improve inflammatory activities likewise as defective fetal development, overall cardiovascular health, and risk of formation of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Fish oils from salmon, mackerel, herring and sardine species are the only source that is very rich in EPA and DHA. These can be obtained from one whole fish about 1.5 and 3.5 g. Intake of 1 g of fish oil capsule per day could supply almost 300 mg omega-3 fatty acids. Daily consumption of n-3 PUFAs is around 100 mg. Omega-3 fatty acids which are EPA and DHA are regarded as dietary fats that consists variety of benefits to health. EPA and DHA are molecular antecedents to a family of eicosanoids which possess anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiarrhythmic, and vasolidatory properties. LA is transformed into AA, and it’s the antecedent to a separate category of eicosanoids which have proinflammatory and prothrombotic properties. This contention is biologically essential due to the fact that eicosanoids are obtained from these two essential fatty acids that are n-6 and n-3. EPA and DHA have a directly contrary effect. The growth of fetus brain experience acceleration in the second trimester of pregnancy and this increase in growth continues throughout the first year of life until several years. The quantity of omega 3-fatty acids required of pregnant women is higher over normal women, as this will help to support fetal growth, especially of the brain and eyes.

Keywords

Fisheries products, Omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, Health benefits

References

• Abbey, M., Belling, G.B., Noakes, M., Hirata, F., Nestel, P.J.1993. Oxidation of low-density lipoproteins: intraindividual variability and the effect of dietary linoleate supplementation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57(3):391-398.
• Arbex, A.K., Bizarro, V.R., Santos, J.C.S., Araújo, L.M.M., de Jesus, A.L.C., Fernandes, M.S.A., Salles, M.M., Rocha, D.R.T.W., Marcadenti, A. 2015. The impact of the essential fatty acids (EFA) in human health. Open Journal of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases 5:98-104.
• Alexander, J.W., Saito, H.I.D.E.A.K.I., Trocki, O., Ogle, C.K.1986. The importance of lipid type in the diet after burn injury. Annals of Surgery 204(1):1-8.
• Baggio, B., Musacchio, E., Priante, G. 2005. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and renal fibrosis: pathophysiologic link and potential clinical implications. Journal of Nephrology 18(4):362-367.
• Barbosa, M.M.D.A.L., de Melo, A.L.T.R., Damasceno, N.R.T., 2017. The benefits of ω-3 supplementation depend on adiponectin basal level and adiponectin increase after the supplementation: a randomized clinical trial. Nutrition 34:7-13.
• Burr, M.L., Gilbert, J.F., Holliday, R.A., Elwood, P.C., Fehily, A.M., Rogers, S., Sweetnam, P.M., Deadman, N.M. 1989. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). The Lancet 334(8666):757-761.
• Burdge, G.C., Calder, P.C. 2005. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults. Reproduction Nutrition Development 45(5):581-597.
• Brasky, T.M., Lampe, J.W., Potter, J.D., Patterson, R.E., White, E. 2010. Specialty supplements and breast cancer risk in the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL) Cohort. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers 19(7):1696-1708.
• Brenna, J.T., Salem Jr, N., Sinclair, A.J., Cunnane, S.C. 2009. α-Linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 80(2-3):85-91.
• Bowden, R.G., Wilson, R.L., Gentile, M., Ounpraseuth, S., Moore, P., Leutholtz, B.C. 2007. Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on vascular access thrombosis in polytetrafluorethylene grafts. Journal of Renal Nutrition 17(2):126-131.
• Brown, T.T., Zelnik, D.L., Dobs, A.S.2003. Fish oil supplementation in pancreatic cancer patients. International Journal of Gastrointestinal Cancer 34(2-3): 143-150.
• Cartwright, I.J., Pockley, A.G., Galloway, J.H., Greaves, M., Preston, F.E. 1985. The effects of dietary ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte membrane phospholipids, erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis 55(3):267-281.
• Cetin, I., Koletzko, B. 2008. Long-chain ω-3 fatty acid supply in pregnancy and lactation. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 11(3):297-302.
• Connor, W.E., Connor, S.L.2007. The importance of fish and docosahexaenoic acid in Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 85(4):929-930.
• Das, U.N.2004. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids interact with nitric oxide, superoxide anion, and transforming growth factor-β to prevent human essential hypertension. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58(2):195-203.
• Dawczynski, C., Martin, L., Wagner, A., Jahreis, G.2010. n− 3 LC-PUFA-enriched dairy products are able to reduce cardiovascular risk factors: A double-blind, cross-over study. Clinical Nutrition 29(5):592-599.
• Dunstan, J.A., Mitoulas, L.R., Dixon, G., Doherty, D.A., Hartmann, P.E., Simmer, K., Prescott, S.L. 2007. The effects of fish oil supplementation in pregnancy on breast milk fatty acid composition over the course of lactation: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatric Research 62(6):689-694.
• Dunstan, J.A., Simmer, K., Dixon, G., Prescott, S.L.2008. Cognitive assessment of children at age 2½ years after maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Fetal and Neonatal Edition 93(1): F45-F50.
• Djoussé, L., Akinkuolie, A.O., Wu, J.H., Ding, E.L.,Gaziano, J.M. 2012. Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and risk of heart failure: a meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition 31(6):846-853.
• Di Marzo, V. 1995. Arachidonic acid and eicosanoids as targets and effectors in second messenger interactions. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 53(4):239-254.
• Furuhjelm, C., Warstedt, K., Larsson, J., Fredriksson, M., Böttcher, M.F., Fälth-Magnusson, K., Duchén, K. 2009. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation may decrease the risk of infant allergy. Acta Paediatrica 98(9):1461-1467.
• Fetterman Jr, J.W.,Zdanowicz, M.M. 2009. Therapeutic potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in disease. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 66(13):1169-1179.
• Faxén Irving, G., Freund-Levi, Y., Eriksdotter-Jönhagen, M., Basun, H., Brismar, K., Hjorth, E., Palmblad, J., Vessby, B., Vedin, I., Wahlund, L.O., Cederholm, T. 2009. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation effects on weight and appetite in patients with Alzheimer's disease: the omega-3 Alzheimer's disease study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 57(1):11-17.
• Freund-Levi, Y., Eriksdotter-Jönhagen, M., Cederholm, T., Basun, H., Faxen-Irving, G., Garlind, A., Vedin, I., Vessby, B., Wahlund, L.O., Palmblad, J. 2006. ω-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: OmegAD study: a randomized double-blind trial. Archives of Neurology 63(10):1402-1408.
• Graber, R., Sumida, C.,Nunez, E.A. 1994. Fatty acids and cell signal transduction. Journal of Lipid Mediators and Cell Signalling 9(2):91-116.
• Gu, Y., Nieves, J.W., Stern, Y., Luchsinger, J.A.,Scarmeas, N. 2010. Food combination and Alzheimer disease risk: a protective diet. Archives of Neurology 67(6):699-706.
• Gunnarsdottir, I., Tomasson, H., Kiely, M., Martinez, J.A., Bandarra, N.M., Morais, M.G., Thorsdottir, I. 2008. Inclusion of fish or fish oil in weight-loss diets for young adults: effects on blood lipids. International Journal of Obesity 32(7):1105-1112.
• Gingras, A.A., White, P.J., Chouinard, P.Y., Julien, P., Davis, T.A., Dombrowski, L., Couture, Y., Dubreuil, P., Myre, A., Bergeron, K., Marette, A. 2007. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids regulate bovine whole-body protein metabolism by promoting muscle insulin signalling to the Akt–mTOR–S6K1 pathway and insulin sensitivity. The Journal of Physiology 579(1):269-284.
• Helland, I.B., Smith, L., Blomén, B., Saarem, K., Saugstad, O.D., Drevon, C.A. 2008. Effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating mothers with n-3 very-long-chain fatty acids on children's IQ and body mass index at 7 years of age. Pediatrics 122(2):e472-e479.
• Hu, F.B., Manson, J.E. 2012. Omega-3 fatty acids and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease is it just a fish tale?: comment on “Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease”. Archives of Internal Medicine 172(9): 694-696.
• Ishikawa, Y., Yokoyama, M., Saito, Y., Matsuzaki, M., Origasa, H., Oikawa, S., Sasaki, J., Hishida, H., Itakura, H., Kita, T., Kitabatake, A. 2010. Preventive effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on coronary artery disease in patients with peripheral artery disease. Circulation Journal 74(7):1451-1457.
• WHO, 2008. Interim Summary of Conclusions and Dietary Recommendations on Total Fat & Fatty Acids From the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Fats and Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition. 10-14 November 2008. WHO, Geneva.
• Jensen, C.L. 2006. Effects of n− 3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83(6):1452S-1457S.
• Kostecka, M. 2015. Fatty acid composition of diets of early school-age children and its health implications. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 31(6): 1467–1471.
• Krauss-Etschmann, S., Hartl, D., Rzehak, P., Heinrich, J., Shadid, R., del Carmen Ramírez-Tortosa, M., Campoy, C., Pardillo, S., Schendel, D.J., Decsi, T., Demmelmair, H. 2008. Decreased cord blood IL-4, IL-13, and CCR4 and increased TGF-β levels after fish oil supplementation of pregnant women. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 121(2): 464-470.
• Kus, MMM, Mancini-Filho, J. 2010. Funcões Plenamente Reconhecidas de Nutrientes: Ácidos Graxos. International Life Sciences Institute, Brasil, 17, 3-18.
• Kris-Etherton, P.M., Harris, W.S., Appel, L.J. 2002. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. circulation, 106(21):2747-2757.
• Kremmyda, L.S., Vlachava, M., Noakes, P.S., Diaper, N.D., Miles, E.A., Calder, P.C. 2011. Atopy risk in infants and children in relation to early exposure to fish, oily fish, or long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: a systematic review. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology 41(1):36-66.
• Lazzarin, N., Vaquero, E., Exacoustos, C., Bertonotti, E., Romanini, M.E., Arduini, D. 2009. Low-dose aspirin and omega-3 fatty acids improve uterine artery blood flow velocity in women with recurrent miscarriage due to impaired uterine perfusion. Fertility and Sterility 92(1):296-300.
• Leaf, D.A., Hatcher, L., 2009. The effect of lean fish consumption on triglyceride levels. The Physician and Sportsmedicine 37(1):37-43.
• Mahaffey, K.R., Sunderland, E.M., Chan, H.M., Choi, A.L., Grandjean, P., Mariën, K., Oken, E., Sakamoto, M., Schoeny, R., Weihe, P., Yan, C.H. 2011. Balancing the benefits of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risks of methylmercury exposure from fish consumption. Nutrition Reviews 69(9):493-508.
• Mann, N.J., O’Connell, S.L., Baldwin, K.M., Singh, I., Meyer, B.J. 2010. Effects of seal oil and tuna-fish oil on platelet parameters and plasma lipid levels in healthy subjects. Lipids 45(8):669-681.
• Martins, M.B., Suaiden, A.S., Piotto, R.F., Barbosa, M. 2008. Properties of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids obtained from fish oil and flaxseed oil. Revista do Instituto de Ciências da Saúde 26:153-156.
• Meyer, B.J., Mann, N.J., Lewis, J.L., Milligan, G.C., Sinclair, A.J., Howe, P.R. 2003. Dietary intakes and food sources of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids 38(4):391-398.
• Murphy, R.A., Mourtzakis, M., Chu, Q.S., Baracos, V.E., Reiman, T., Mazurak, V.C. 2011. Supplementation with fish oil increases first line chemotherapy efficacy in patients with advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer. Cancer 117(16):3774-3780.
• Murphy, R.A., Mourtzakis, M., Chu, Q.S., Baracos, V.E., Reiman, T., Mazurak, V.C. 2011. Nutritional intervention with fish oil provides a benefit over standard of care for weight and skeletal muscle mass in patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer receiving chemotherapy. Cancer 117(8):1775-1782.
• Murray, M.J., Kumar, M., Gregory, T.J., Banks, P.L., Tazelaar, H.D., DeMichele, S.J. 1995. Select dietary fatty acids attenuate cardiopulmonary dysfunction during acute lung injury in pigs. Am J Physiol. 269:H2090-2099.
• Mori, T.A., Beilin, L.J., Burke, V., Morris, J., Ritchie, J. 1997. Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 17(2):279-286.
• Morris, M.C., Evans, D.A., Bienias, J.L., Tangney, C.C., Bennett, D.A., Wilson, R.S., Aggarwal, N., Schneider, J. 2003. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology 60(7):940-946.
• Olsen, S.F., Secher, N.J., Tabor, A., Weber, T., Walker, J.J., Gluud, C. 2000. Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 107(3):382-395.
• Ramakrishnan, U., Stein, A.D., Parra-Cabrera, S., Wang, M., Imhoff-Kunsch, B., Juárez-Márquez, S., Rivera, J., Martorell, R.2010. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy on gestational age and size at birth: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Mexico. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 31(Suppl2): S108-S116.
• Ryan, A.S., Astwood, J.D., Gautier, S., Kuratko, C.N., Nelson, E.B., Salem Jr, N. 2010. Effects of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on neurodevelopment in childhood: a review of human studies. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 82(4-6):305-314.
• Ristić-Medić, D., Perunicić-Peković, G., Rasić-Milutinović, Z. 2011. PUFA status and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in hemodialysis patients: pathophysiological aspects and clinical outcomes. Nutritional Therapy and Metabolism 29(4):178-187.
• Schiano, V., Laurenzano, E., Brevetti, G., De Maio, J.I., Lanero, S., Scopacasa, F., Chiariello, M. 2008. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in peripheral arterial disease: effect on lipid pattern, disease severity, inflammation profile, and endothelial function. Clinical Nutrition 27(2):241-247.
• Stern, A.H. 2007. Public health guidance on cardiovascular benefits and risks related to fish consumption. Environmental Health 6:31.
• Saravanan, P., Davidson, N.C., Schmidt, E.B. and Calder, P.C., 2010. Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. The Lancet 376(9740):540-550.
• Smith, G.I., Atherton, P., Reeds, D.N., Mohammed, B.S., Rankin, D., Rennie, M.J., Mittendorfer, B. 2010. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 93(2):402-412.
• Su, K.P., Huang, S.Y., Chiu, T.H., Huang, K.C., Huang, C.L., Chang, H.C., Pariante, C.M.2008. Omega-3 fatty acids for major depressive disorder during pregnancy: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 69(4):644-651.
• Swanson, D., Block, R., Mousa, S.A. 2012. Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA:health benefits throughout life. Advances in Nutrition 3(1):1-7.
• Serhan, C.N., Chiang, N., Van Dyke, T.E. 2008. Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators. Nature Reviews Immunology 8(5):349-361.
• Tanaka, K., Ishikawa, Y., Yokoyama, M. 2008. Stroke: Reduction in the recurrence of stroke by eicosapentaenoic acid for hypercholesterolemic patients: subanalysis of the JELIS trial. Alternative Medicine Review, 13(3):259-260.
• Tanskanen, A., Hibbeln, J.R., Tuomilehto, J., Uutela, A., Haukkala, A., Viinamäki, H., Lehtonen, J., Vartiainen, E.2001. Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. Psychiatric Services 52(4):529-531.
• Trabal, J., Leyes, P., Forga, M., Maurel, J. 2010. Potential usefulness of an EPA-enriched nutritional supplement on chemotherapy tolerability in cancer patients without overt malnutrition. Nutricion Hospitalaria 25(5):736-740.
• Tully, A.M., Roche, H.M., Doyle, R., Fallon, C., Bruce, I., Lawlor, B., Coakley, D., Gibney, M.J. 2003. Low serum cholesteryl ester-docosahexaenoic acid levels in Alzheimer's disease: a case–control study. British Journal of Nutrition, 89(4):483-489.
• Vucic, V. Ristic-Medic, D. 2012. Eicosapentaenoic Acid: Sources, Health Effects and Role in Disease Prevention, Nova Publishers, New York, p. 99.
• Weisburger, J.H. 1997. Dietary fat and risk of chronic disease: insights from experimental studies mechanistic. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 97(7):S16-S23.