Comparison of Financing Sources Used in Urban Public Transportation in Ankara with World Examples: A Proposed Model for Ankara City

Year 2023, Volume: 16 Issue: 3, 2028 - 2052, 15.09.2023

Sevilay Bostancı , Yesim Aliefendioglu

https://doi.org/10.35674/kent.1287655

Abstract

Examining the sources of finance used in public transport is important given that public transport enables passengers, and vulnerable groups of passengers to reach schools, public health facilities, and their jobs. On the other hand, public transport is a financial burden on the budgets of public institutions. Investigating additional sources of financing or new sources of finance is imperative at this point.

The study focuses on the financing of public transportation and compares Ankara Province with countries and cities outside of the country. The financing sources of public transportation overseas have been analyzed by looking at both traditional and non-traditional financing models. The study aims to propose a model by evaluating which ones of the financing resources of public transportation in the sampled countries and cities overseas can be applied to Ankara. The main idea of the methodology is to utilize resources derived from the provision of public services.

In this study, the financing of public transportation in London, New York, Vancouver, Hong Kong, Singapore, Germany, the United States of America (USA), European Union (Eu) have examined and compared with Ankara Province. In the study, a literature review has conducted and data on public transportation in Ankara have obtained from the General Directorate of EGO (Ankara Public Transportation Authority). Qualitative data collection methods such as interviews and document analysis have been deployed.

Sources used overseas to finance public transportation include domestic and external borrowing in municipalities, municipal revenues, federal or state budget revenues, private sector investments, partly PPP models, municipal or central government subsidies, ticket revenues, advertising, value purchase taxes, taxes levied on employers, traffic fines, the budget of national development agencies, central government revenues, congestion charge on private vehicles, property taxes, financing from the increase in land values resulting from the construction of public transportation system, bonds of institutions.

In Türkiye, public transportation is financed by using sources such as part of the taxes collected by municipalities, foreign and domestic loans, ticket revenues, PPP models, private sector investments, and revenues of municipalities and affiliated administrations. It may be possible to apply some of these models used abroad in Türkiye, but legal conditions need to be established.

Keywords

Public Transportation, Financing, Transportation Service, Ankara, Sources of Financing in Public Transportation

Ankara’da Kent İçi Toplu Ulaşımda Kullanılan Finansman Kaynaklarının Dünya Örnekleri İle Karşılaştırılması; Ankara İçin Model Önerisi

Abstract

Toplu ulaşımda kullanılan finansman kaynaklarının incelenmesi toplu ulaşımla yolcuların ve hassas yolcu gruplarının okullara, kamu sağlık kuruluşlarına ve işyerlerine ulaşımını sağladığı düşünüldüğünde önemli görülmektedir. Öte yandan, toplu ulaşım kamu kurumlarının bütçeleri üzerinde mali bir yük oluşturmaktadır. Ek finansman kaynakları veya yeni finansman kaynaklarının araştırılması bu noktada önemlidir.

Çalışmada, toplu ulaşım sistemlerinin finansmanı ele alınarak, Ankara İli ile yurtdışında örnek olarak alınan ülke ve şehirler karşılaştırılmıştır. Yurt dışında hem geleneksel hem de geleneksel olmayan finansman yöntemleri incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı, yurt dışındaki örnek olarak incelenen ülke ve şehirlerdeki toplu ulaşımın finansman kaynaklarından hangilerinin Ankara için uygulanabileceğini değerlendirerek bir model önerisinde bulunmaktır. Metodolojinin ana fikri, kamu hizmetlerinin sağlanmasından elde edilen kaynakların toplu ulaşımda kullanılmasıdır.

Çalışmada Londra, New York, Vancouver, Hong Kong, Singapur, Almanya, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD), Avrupa Birliğine (AB) üye ülkelerden bazıları incelenerek, Ankara İli ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Çalışmada öncelikle literatür taraması yapılmış olup Ankara İli toplu ulaşımı ile ilgili veriler EGO Genel Müdürlüğü’nden (EGO) alınmıştır. Çalışmada yöntem olarak niteliksel araştırma kullanılarak, görüşme ve doküman analizi kullanılmış, nitel veri toplama yöntemleri kullanılmıştır.

Toplu ulaşımın finansmanında yurt dışında kullanılan kaynaklar; belediyelerde iç ve dış borçlanma, belediye gelirleri, federal bütçe veya eyalet bütçe gelirleri, özel sektör yatırımları, KÖİ modelleri, belediyelerin veya merkezi yönetimin sübvansiyonları, bilet gelirleri, reklam gelirleri, değer alım vergileri, çalışan sayısı 9’u aşan işverenlerden alınan vergiler, trafik cezaları, ulusal kalkınma ajanslarının bütçesi, özel araçlardan alınan tıkanıklık ücreti, emlak vergileri, toplu ulaşım sisteminin yapımı ile oluşan arsa değerlerindeki artıştan sağlanan finansman ve tahviller şeklindedir. Türkiye’de ise, toplu ulaşımın finansmanında belediyelerce toplanan vergilerin bir kısmı, dış ve iç krediler, bilet gelirleri, KÖİ modelleri, özel sektör yatırımları, belediye ve bağlı idarelerin gelirleri gibi kaynaklar kullanılmaktadır. Yurt dışında kullanılan söz konusu bazı modelleri Türkiye’de uygulamak için yasal şartların oluşturulması gerekmektedir.

Keywords

Toplu Ulaşım, Finansman, Ulaşım Hizmeti, Ankara, Toplu Ulaşımda Finansman Kaynakları

References

• Abelson, P. (2008). Financing Transport Infrastructure: Public Finance Issues. In K. J. Button, & D. A. (Eds), Handbook of Transport Strategy, Policy and Institutions (pp. 1‐834). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
• AICGS, (2013). AICGS Policy Report. John Hopkins University, Washington D.C.
• Amaral, M., Saussier, S. & Yvrande-Billon, A. (2013). Expected number of bidders and winning bids: Evidence from the london bus tendering model. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy (JTEP), 47(1), 17-34
• Anonymous. (2020a). https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/grant-programs Erişim Tarihi: 17.12.2020.
• Anonymous. (2020b). Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute. Public Transportation: System introduction or expansion. County Health Rankings & Roadmaps. Public transportation systemsexternal icon. Published June 29, 2017. Accessed December 18, 2020.
• Anonymous. (2020c). The Federal Transportation Act: The Fixing America’s Surface Transportation (FAST) Act; 2015.
• Anonymous. (2020d). The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro). Project, Programs and Plans. Transportation Fundingexternal icon. Published 2016. Accessed December 19, 2020.
• Anonymous. (2020e). America’s Infrastructure Scores a D+. America Society of Civil Engineers’ 2017 Infrastructure Report Cardexternal icon. Published 2017. Accessed December 19, 2020.
• Anonymous. (2021a). Web Sitesi: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_for_ London. Erişim Tarihi: 23.10.2021.
• Anonymous. (2021b). Web Sitesi: https://audit.wa.gov.au/wp- content/uploads/ 2021/ 08/OAG-Annual-Report-2020-2021.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 25.10.2021.
• Anonymous. (2021c). Web Sitesi: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/driving-and-transportation/reports-and-reference/reports-and-studies/transit/translink governance_revi ew.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 26.10.2021.
• Anonymous. (2021d). Web Sitesi: https://www.clc.gov.sg/docs/default-source/urban-systems-studies/uss-transport-revised.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 29.10.2021.
• Anonymous. (2021e). Web Sitesi: https://tfl.gov.uk/ Erişim Tarihi: 19.03.2021.
• Anonymous. (2023a). Web Sitesi https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/driving-and-transportation/ reports-and-reference/reports-and-studies/transit/translink _governance_review.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 04.03.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023b). Web Sitesi: National Transport Authority. (2018). Funding of Public Transport in Ireland. Retrieved from https://www.nationaltransport.ie/wp-content/uploads/2018/ 08/Funding-of-Public-Transport-in-Ireland.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023c). Web Sitesi: OECD. (2017). Urban Transport Governance and Inclusive Development in Greater Dublin, Ireland. Retrieved from OECD. (2017). Urban Transport Governance and Inclusive Development in Greater Dublin, Ireland. Retrieved from ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023d). Web Sitesi: Lithuanian National Public Transport Association. (2015). Financing of Public Transport in Lithuania. Retrieved from http://www.leto.lt/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Lietuvos-Vie%C5%A1ojo-Tarnsporto-Finansavimas-angl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023e). Web Sitesi: European Union. (n.d.). Funding for transport projects. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/infrastructure/funding_en. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023f). Web Sitesi: Lithuanian Ministry of Transport and Communications. (2021). Transport sector in Lithuania. Retrieved from https://urm.lt/default/en/transport-sector-in-lithuania/transport-sector-in-lithuania-2#toPublicTransport. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023g). Web Sitesi: European Union. (n.d.). Funding for transport projects. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/infrastructure/funding_en. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023h). Web Sitesi: Austrian Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology. (2020). Public Transport in Austria. Retrieved from https://www.bmk.gv.at/en/topics/mobility/integrated-public- transport/public-transport-in-austria.html. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023ı). Web Sitesi: Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB). (2021). About ÖBB. Retrieved from. https://www.oebb.at/en/ueber-uns/index.html. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023i). Web Sitesi: Swiss Public Transport. (n.d.). Financing. Retrieved from https://www.swisspublictransport.ch/en/service-and-help/about-us/financing.html. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023k). Web Sitesi: Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications. (2019). Public Transport in Switzerland. Retrieved from https://www.uvek.admin.ch/uvek/en/home/mobilitaet/oepnv.html. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonymous. (2023l). Web Sitesi: Federal Office of Transport. (n.d.). Financing of public transport. Retrieved from https://www.bav.admin.ch/bav/en/home/themes/public-transport/financing -of-public-transport.html. Erişim Tarihi: 14.04.2023.
• Anonim. (2023). Web Sitesi: https://disiliskiler.ktb.gov.tr/TR-127495/avrupa-birligi.html. Erişim Tarihi: 02.03.2023.
• ARA. (2014). Innovative Funding And Financing For Public Transport. Australasian Railway Association, Canberra.
• Asensio, T., Matas, A. & Raymond, J. L. (2003). Redistributive effects of subsidies to urban public transport in Spain. Transport Reviews, 23 (4), 433–452.
• Beck, A. (2011). Barriers to Entry in Rail Passenger Services: Empirical Evidence for Tendering Procedures in Germany. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 11(1), p. 20–41.
• Black, A. (1995). Urban Mass Transportation Planning. McGraw-Hill: New York.
• Bly, P. H., Webster, F. V. & Pounds, S. (1980). Effects of Subsidies on Urban Public Tran-Sport. Transportation, 9 (4), 311-331.
• Bly, P. H. & Oldfield, R. H. (1986). Competition between minibuses and regular bus service. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 20 (1), 47-68.
• Bushell, C. (1994). Jane’s Urban Transport Systems 1993=94, Jane’s Information Group, Coulsdon: Surrey.
• Drevs, F., Tscheulin, D. K., Lindermeier, J. & Renner, S. (2014). Crowding-in or crowding-out: An empirical analysis on the effect of subsidies on individual willingness-to-pay for public transportation. Transportation Research Part A, 59(1), 250–261.
• Farrell, S. (1999). Financing European Transport Infrastructure: Policies and Practice in Western Europe, London: Macmillan. ISBN 033-37-189-68
• Fidan, A. (2022) İklim Değişikliği, Sürdürülebilirlik ve Dirinçli Kentler, Ed.Yakup Bulut, Miraç Aslan, Kent içi Ulaşımda Sürdürülebilir Modellerin Kent Dirençliliğine Etkisi, Çizgi Kitabevi, ISBN:9786051969565,S:191-204, İstanbul.
• Kalasova, A., Cernicky, L. & Kubikova, S. (2014). Microscopic Simulation of Coordinated Route in the City of Zilina, Communications- Scientific Letters of the University of Zilina, No. 2, 46-50.
• Kılıçaslan, P. P., Elker, P. D. & Babalık Sutclıffe, D. E. (2012). Kentsel Ulaşım. Ninova Yayınları, 40-304.
• Kȩblowski, W., Tuvikene, T., Pikner, T., & Jauhiainen, J. S. (2019). Towards an urban political geography of transport: Unpacking the political and scalar dynamics of fare-free public transport in Tallinn, Estonia. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 37(6), 967-984.
• Litman, T. (2016). Local Funding Options for Public Transportation. Victoria: Victoria Transport Policy Institute.
• Lizbetin, J., Kampf, R., Stopka, O., Bartuska, L. & Cejka, J. (2015). The Current Status of Intermodal Transport Terminals in the Slovak Republic, Horizonts of Railway Transport 2015: Anniversary, vol. 1, 143-147, University of Zilina, ISBN 978-80-554-1097-5.
• Meakin, R. (2004). Urban transport institutions. sustainable transport: a sourcebook for policy-makers in developing cities module. Eschborn.
• MTA, (2016). MTA Capital Program. MTA, New York.
• Nedeliakova, E., Sekulova, J., Nedeliak, I. & Abramovic, B. (2016). Application of Raymond Fisk Model in Research of Service Quality, Communications- Scientific Letters of the University of Zilina, No. 2, 11-14.
• Pojani, D. & Stead, D. (2017). The Urban Transport Crisis İn Emerging Economies.Netherlands.
• Poliak, M. (2013). The Relationship between the Fair Profit and Risk in the Public Passenger Transport in the Slovak Republic, Ekonomicky casopis/J. of Economics, vol. 61 (2), 206-220.
• Poliak, M., Komackova, L., Kernandez, S., Jaskiewicz, M. & Boldizsarova, G. (2017a). Sources Of Fınancıng Publıc Passenger Transport Servıces. Communıcatıons, 19; 120-126. https://komunikacie.uniza.sk/artkey/csl-201702-0021_sources-of-financing-public-passenger-transport-services.php.Erişim Tarihi: 03.03.2023.
• Poliak, M., Poliakova, A., Mrnikova, M., Simurkova, P., Jaskiewicz, M., & Jurecki, R. (2017b). The competitiveness of public transport. Journal of Competitiveness.
• Poliaková, A. (2010a). Dane a poplatky v doprave a zasielatelstve. Zilina: EDIS-publisher ZU.
• Poliaková, A. (2010b). Customer satisfaction index with a quality of service in public mass transport. Doprava a spoje 2(1), 43-49.
• Proost, S. & Van Dender, K. (2008). ”Optimal urban transport pricing in the presence of congestion, economies of density and costly public funds”, Transportation Research Part A - Policy and Practice, 42 (9), 1220-1230.
• Predki, B. & Wilk, Sz. (1999). Rough set based data exploration using ROSE system. In: Foundations of Intelligent Systems. 11th International Symposium, ISMIS’99 Warsaw, Poland, June 8–11, 1999., 172–180.
• Pucher, J. & Markstedt, A. (1983). Consequences of Public Ownership and Subsidies for Mass Transit: Evidence from Case Studies and Regression Analysis. Transportation, 11 (4), 323-345.
• Simpson, B. J. (1994). Urban Public Transport Today, E&FN Spon: London.
• Sıms, L. & Berry, J. (1999). Various Ways of Recovering Increases in Land and Property Values-The Example of North America, UITP seminar, Paris, October 1999.
• Small, Kenneth A., & José A. Gómez Ibánez. (1998). Road pricing for congestion management: the transition from theory to policy. Button and Verhoef, 213–246.
• Storchmann, K. H. (2001). The impact of fuel taxes on public transport – an empirical assessment for Germany. Transport Policy, 8 (1) 19–28.
• Tisato, P. (1998). Service unreliability and bus subsidy. Transportation Research A: Policy Practice, 32 (6), 423–436.
• Tsay, S.P. & Herrmann, V. (2013). Rethinking urban mobility. Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
• Tscharaktschiew S. & Hirte, G. (2012). Should subsidies to urban passenger transport be increased? A spatial CGE analysis for a German metropolitan area. Transportation Research Part A, 46(1), 285-309.
• Tuncer, U. A. (2017). İstanbul’da Toplu Ulaşımın Organizasyonel Yönetimi ve Finansmanı. Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Kentsel Sistemler ve Ulaştırma Yönetimi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul.
• Ubbels, B. & Nijkamp, P. (2002). Unconventional Funding of Urban Public Transport. Transportation Research, Part D, 7 (1), 317-329.
• Uğur, C., Kişla, R., & Su, Ö. A. (2021). Kentiçi Toplu Taşıma Araçları için Performansa Dayalı Hakediş Sistemi: İstanbul Örneği Modeli. Avrupa Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi, (31), 232-241.
• Van de Velde, D. (2004). Reference Framework for Analyzing Targeted Competitive Tendering in Public Transport. Oslo: Institute of Transport Economics.
• Van de Velde, D. (2008). A New Regulation for the European Public Transport. Research in Transport Economics, 22 (1), pp. 78–84.
• Vasiljevic, Z. (2017). The Legal Regime of Utility Services and Public-Private Partnership in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Network Industries Quarterly. ss. 1-34.
• Vuchic, V.R. (1981). Urban Public Transportation: Systems and Technology, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
• Vukan, R. & Vuchıc, P. B. (2007). Urban Transıt Systems and Technology.Wiley&Sons, (Çev. Uzun, M.). New Jersey, United States of America.
• Varjan, P. (2017). The Proposal of the Methodology of the Funding Sources in Public Passenger Transport, dissertation thesis, adviser: doc. Milos Poliak, Zilinska Univerzita.
• Wallis, I., Bray, D. & Webster, H. (2010). To Competitively Tender or to Negotiate – Veighing Up the Choices in a Mature Market. Research in Transport Economics, 29 (1), 89–98.
• Wetzel, D. (2006). Facing the environmental challenge: innovative methods of financing public transportation. World Transport Policy & Practice. 12 (1), ss. 40-46
• West, A. (2010). Gross-cost incentive contracts – an innovative instrument for financing local and regional railways. (online), http://www.polisnetwork.eu/uploads /Modules/Public Documents/Gross_cost_incentive_contracts___an_innovative_instrument_of_financing_local_and_regional_railways__Dr_Alexander_West__Verkehrsverbund_Berlin-Brandenburg.pdf (Erişim Tarihi :29.10.2021).
• World Bank. (2015). “Developing countries’ GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$ -online).” http://data.worldbank .org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD.