Suriye Krizinde Mezhepçiliğin Araçsallaştırılması

Year 2023, Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 154 - 179, 28.03.2023

İbrahim Akkan , Fuat Aksu

https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.1212968

Abstract

2011 Suriye kriziyle birlikte Sünni-Şii ayrımı Ortadoğu bölgesindeki siyaset açısından en önemli faktörlerden biri haline gelmiştir. Özellikle Suriye’deki çatışmalarda mezhep gruplarının birbirlerini varoluşsal birer tehdit olarak algılamasıyla krizde zaman zaman mezhepsel bir boyut öne çıkmıştır. Fakat bu dönüşüm, temel olarak mezhepçiliğin tarihsel köklerine dayanmanın ötesinde, liderin ve siyasi elitlerin iktidarın güvenliğini sağlamak için mezhepsel kimlikleri birer araç olarak kullanmasının bir sonucu olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu makale Suriye krizinde mezhepsel araçsallaştırmanın kimler tarafından, nasıl yapıldığını ve bu politikanın çatışmaları ne yönde etkilediğini tartışmaktadır. Makalede Suriye krizinin karmaşık mezhepsel boyutunun primordializm yaklaşımıyla açıklanamayacağı görüşünden hareket edilmektedir. Bu bağlamda primordializm yerine Enstrümantalizm yaklaşımı kullanılarak Beşar Esad yönetiminin mezhepsel kimlikleri iktidarının sürekliliğini sağlamak amacıyla araçsallaştırdığı savı tartışılmaktadır. Bunun için de Suriye’de siyasal iktidarın söylem, eylem ve politikaları incelenerek Suriye krizinde mezhepçiliğin nasıl araçsallaştırıldığı açıklanmaktadır.
Suriye krizinde mezhepçiliğin araçsallaştırılması politikasının Esad’ın çatışmaları kendi lehine çevirmesinde ve varlığını korumasında önemli bir yere sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Öte yandan bu politikanın birçok olumsuz sonucu olduğu ve tehlikeli bir süreci beraberinde getirdiği de göz ardı edilmemelidir. Mezhepçiliği araçsallaştırma politikası, toplumun kimlik çizgilerine göre bölünmesi, mezhep grupları arasındaki hoşgörünün ortadan kalkması ve Ortadoğu bölgesinde kimlik temelli düşmanlıkların ortaya çıkması gibi nesilleri etkileyecek sorunlara yol açmıştır. Bu da mezhepçiliğin araçsallaştırılmasının kısa vadede avantaj sağlayan bir politika olmasına rağmen uzun vadede büyük sorunlar yaratacağını göstermektedir.

Keywords

Suriye, Mezhepçilik, Enstrümantalizm, Primordializm, Araçsallaştırma

Instrumantalisation of Sectarianism in Syrian Crisis

Abstract

Sunni-Shiite divide has become one of the most important factors for politics in the Middle Eastern region after the 2011 Syrian crisis. The sectarian dimension of the crisis has come into prominence from time to time in the conflicts in Syria, especially when sectarian groups perceive each other as existential threats. However, this transformation has yet to emerge as a result of the historical roots of sectarianism, but of the leader and political elites using sectarian identities as a tool to ensure the security of power. This article discusses how and by whom sectarian instrumentalization has been applied in the Syrian crisis and how this policy affected the conflicts. In this article, it is argued that the complex sectarian dimension of the Syrian crisis cannot be explained by the primordialism approach. In this context, the Instrumentalism approach has been used to discuss the argument that Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad and his administration instrumentalized the sectarian identity to preserve his authority. For this reason, the actions, discourses and policies of the government have been analyzed to explain how sectarianism was instrumentalized in the Syrian crisis.
In the Syrian crisis, the policy of instrumentalizing sectarianism has played an important role in Assad’s ability to turn the conflict in his favor and preserve his existence. On the other hand, it should be noticed that this policy has many negative consequences and brings along a dangerous process. The policy of instrumentalizing sectarianism has led to problems that will affect generations, such as the division of society according to identity lines, the disappearance of tolerance between sectarian groups, and the emergence of identity-based hostilities in the Middle East region. This shows that although the instrumentalization of sectarianism is a policy that provides advantages in the short term, it will create major problems in the long run.

Keywords

Syria, Sectarianism, Instrumentalism, Instrumentalization, Primordialism

References

• Abdul Haq, E. (2019, 22 Kasım). Leaked Document: Assad İssued Amnesty for terrorists, Jihadists in 2011 to Radicalize the Uprising. Zaman Al Wasl (Erişim tarihi: 05 Ağustos 2022). https:// en.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/49602/
• Abouzeid, R. (2018). No Turning Back: Life, Loss, and Hope in Wartime Syria. WW Norton ve Company. Abu-Helal, F. (2014, 24 Ocak). Sectarianism and the Syrian Revolution (Erişim tarihi: 15 Haziran 2022). https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20140124-sectarianism-and-the-syrian-revolution/
• Agashe, A. (2022). Ethnicity as a Politicised Identity: An Instrumental Approach. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educaditional Research, 4(2), 26-32.
• Al Jazeera. (2012, 18 Şubat). Nir Rosen on Syrian Sectarianism (Erişim tarihi: 30 Ağustos 2022). https:// www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/2/18/qa-nir-rosen-on-syrian-sectarianism
• Al Sharif, O. (2014, 11 Temmuz). Opinion: Isil Has Saved Al Assad Regime for Now. The Syrian Observer (Erişim tarihi: 30 Temmuz 2022).
• Al-Assad, B. (2000, 17 Temmuz). Syria President Bashar Al-Assad Inauguration Speech (Erişim tarihi: 15 Eylül 2022). https://al-bab.com/documents-section/president-bashar-al-assad-inaugural-address.
• Al-Assad, B. (2011, 20 Haziran). Syria President Bashar al-Assad Speech to Parliament (Erişim tarihi: 10 Ağustos 2022). https://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/docs/syria/bashar_assad_speech_110620. htm
• Al-Assad, B. (2011, 21 Ağustos). Syria President Bashar al-Assad Speech to Parliament (Erişim tarihi: 18 Ağustos 2022). https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2016/03/14/A-look-at-Assad-s-half-decade- of-defiant-speeches.
• Al-Assad, B. (2011, 30 Mart). Syria President Bashar al-Assad Speech to Parliament (Erişim tarihi: 05 Ekim 2022). https://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/docs/syria/bashar_assad_speech_110330.htm Al-Assad, B. (2012, 04 Haziran). Speech Delivered by H.E. President Bashar al-Assad At the People’s Assembly (Erişim Tarihi: 10 Ekim 2022). https://www.voltairenet.org/article174496.html
• Al-Assad, B. (2012, 04 Haziran). Syria President Bashar al-Assad Speech to Parliament (Erişim tarihi: 14 Ekim 2022). https://al-bab.com/documents-section/syria-speech-bashar-al-assad-3. Suriye Krizinde Mezhepçiliğin Araçsallaştırılması
• Al-Assad, B. (2012, 10 Ocak). H.E. President al-Assad Delivers Speech Today (Erişim Tarihi: 10 Eylül 2022). https://www.islamicinvitationturkey.com/h-e-president-al-assad-delivers-speech-today-full-text- of-the-speech/
• Al-Assad, B. (2013, 06 Haziran). Bashar Al-Assad’s Speech On Syrian Crisis (Erişim Tarihi: 05 Ekim 2022). https://www.ibtimes.com/bashar-al-assads-speech-syrian-crisis-full-text-998536.
• Al-Assad, B. (2013, 07 Ocak). The West has Brought Terrorists to Syria: President Bashar Al Assad’s Historic Speech (Erişim Tarihi: 05 Ekim 2022). https://www.globalresearch.ca/the-west-has-brought- terrorists-to-syria-president-bashar-al-assads-historic-speech-full-transcript/5317977.
• Al-Refaai, L. (2021) Views: How the Assad Regime Helped Create, Support, and Perpetuate ‘ISIS’?, Rowaq Arabi 26 (3), pp. 39-46. DOI: 10.53833/KNMG9677
• Al-Sharif, O. (2014, 11 Temmuz). Isil has saved Al Assad regime for now, The Syrian Observer.Alshogre, O. (2021, 30 Mayıs). Surviving and Escaping the Syrian Prison System (Erişim tarihi: 20 Ağustos 2022). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nXzbnbgqAtQ
• Alvarez-Ossorio, I. (2019). The Sectarian Dynamics of the Syrian Conflict. The Review of Faith ve International Affairs, 17(2), 47-58. DOI: 10.1080/15570.274.2019.1608644
• Bačová, V. (1998). The Construction of National Identity-on Primordialism and İnstrumentalism. Human Affairs, (1), 29-43.
• Balanche, F. (2018). Sectarianism in Syria’s civil war. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Baumann, T. (2004). Defining ethnicity. The SAA archaeological record, 4(4), 12-14.
• BBC News, (2013, 27 Mayıs). Syrian activists document al-Bayda and Baniyas ‘massacre’ (Erişim tarihi: 15 Eylül 2022). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22684359
• BBC News. (2012, 13 Ocak). Syria tanks and troops ‘enter protest town, Zabadani’ (Erişim tarihi: 25 Temmuz 2022). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-16557204
• Blair, D. (2014, 22 Ağustos). How Assad helped the rise of his ‘foe’ Isil. The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph. co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11051566/How-Assad-helped-the-rise-of-his-foe-Isil. html
• Bloom, R. L., vd,. (1958). The Instrumentalism of John Dewey. 2.
• Brass, P. R., & Brass, P. R. (1991). Ethnicity and nationalism: Theory and comparison. Sage Publications (CA).
• Bulos, N. (2015, 06 Aralık). How does Islamic State make money off oil fields in Syria and Iraq?. Los Angeles Times (Erişim tarihi: 30 Temmuz 2022). https://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg- islamic-state-oil-qa-20151206-story.html
• Cordall, S. S. (2014, 21 Haziran). How Syria’s Assad Helped Forge ISIS. Newsweek (Erişim tarihi: 28 Haziran 2022). https://www.newsweek.com/how-syrias-assad-helped-forge-isis-255631
• Dadouch, S. (2020, 11 Haziran). Syrian protesters raise rare anti-Assad chants amid economic plunge. Washington Post (Erişim tarihi: 15 Temmuz 2022). https://www.washingtonpost. com/world/middle_east/syrian-protesters-raise-rare-anti-assad-chants-amid-economic-plunge/2020/06/10/2b667242-a99c-11ea-a43b-be9f6494a87d_story.html
• Daoudy, M. (2013, 22 Temmuz). Sectarianism in Syria: myth and reality. Open Democracy (Erişim tarihi: 01 Temmuz 2022) https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/sectarianism-in-syria-myth-and-reality/
• Darwich, M. ve Fakhoury, T. (2016). Casting the Other as an existential threat: The securitisation of sectarianism in the international relations of the Syria crisis. Global Discourse, 6(4), 712-732. DOI: 10.1080/23269.995.2016.1259231
• Dibo, M. (2014, 22 Eylül). Opening the debate on sectarianism in Syria. Open Democracy (Erişim tarihi: 30 Haziran 2022). https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/opening-debate-on- sectarianism-in-syria/
• Droz-Vincent, P. (2014). “State of Barbary”(Take Two): From the Arab Spring to the return of violence in Syria. The Middle East Journal, 68(1), 33-58.
• Ejaz, M. ve Rehman, A. (2022). Exploration of the foundations of ethnic conflicts in Baluchistan: a theoretical perspective. Liberal Arts and Social Sciences International Journal (LASSIJ), 6(1), 42-55.
• Filic, G. P. (2021). Critique of Instrumentalist and Primordialist Theories: The Case of Yugoslavia. Political perspectives: journal for political research, 11(2), 93-117.
• Financial Times. (2015, 15 Aralık). Isis Inc: Syria’s ‘mafia-style’ gas deals with jihadis (Erişim tarihi: 01 Temmuz 2022). https://www.ft.com/content/92f4e036-6b69-11e5-aca9-d87542bf8673.
• Ghadry, F. (2014, 12 Ağustos). US State confirms Assad behind ISIL (Erişim tarihi: 30 Ağustos 2022). https:// blogs.timesofisrael.com/us-state-confirms-assad-behind-isil/.
• Goldsmith, L. (2018a). Syrıa’s Alawis: Structure, perception and agency in the Syrian security dilemma. In The Syrian Uprising, Routledge, (pp. 141-158).
• Goldsmith, L. (2018b). The Alawites of Syria: The costs of minority rule. In Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East, Routledge, (pp. 185-196).
• Gov.uk, (2015, 30 Eylül). The Assad regime created the environment in which extremism and ISIL in particular flourished (Erişim tarihi: 20 Eylül 2022). https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the- assad-regime-created-the-environment-in-which-extremism-and-isil-in-particular-flourished
• Hadaya, S. (2020). Sectarianisation in Syria: The Disintegration of a Popular Struggle. Conflict, Security ve Development, 20(5), 607-629. DOI: 10.1080/14678.802.2020.1833520
• Haddad, F. (2014). Sectarianism in Iraq: Antagonistic Visions of Unity. Oxford University Press, 25-27. Haddad, F. (2017). ‘Sectarianism’ and its Discontents in the Study of the Middle East. The Middle East Journal, 71(3), 363-382.
• Haddad, F. (2020). Understanding ‘Sectarianism’: Sunni-Shi’a Relationsin the Modern Arab World. Oxford University Press, New York.
• Hashemi, N. ve Postel, D. (2017). Sectarianization: Mapping the New Politics of the Middle East. The Review of Faith ve International Affairs, 15(3), 1-13. DOI: 10.1080/15570.274.2017.1354462
• Hinnebusch, R. (2019). Sectarianism and Governance in Syria. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 41-66.
• Hinnebusch, R. ve Imady, O. (2018). The Syrian Uprising. Routledge, New York.
• Holliday, J. (2011). The struggle for Syria in 2011. Institute for the Study of War, 16, 7-29.
• Human Rights Watch, (2012, 27 Mayıs). Syria: UN Inquiry Should Investigate Houla Killings (Erişim tarihi: 30 Ekim 2022). https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/27/syria-un-inquiry-should-investigate-houla- killings
• Human Rights Watch. (2013, 13 Eylül). “No One’s Left”: Summary Executions by Syrian Forces in Al-Bayda and Baniyas (Erişim tarihi: 25 Ağustos 2022). https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/13/no-ones- left/summary-executions-syrian-forces-al-bayda-and-baniyas
• Humud, C. E., Blanchard, C. M. ve Nikitin, M. B. D. (2016). Armed Conflict in Syria: Overview and US Response. Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service.
• Kalyvas, S. N. (2008). Ethnic defection in civil war. Comparative Political Studies, 41(8), 1043–1068.
• Khatib, H. (2015). Political İnstrumentalization of Islam in a Violent State Crisis: The Case of Syria. Journal of Applied Security Research, 10(3), 341-361. DOI:10.1080/19361.610.2015.1038769
• Khatib, H. (2017, 21 Şubat). Radicalization in European Prisons Between Prevention and Instrumentalization of Religion (Erişim tarihi: 05 Ağustos 2022). https://www.eurasiareview.com/21022017- radicalization-in-european-prisons-between-prevention-and-instrumentalization-of-religion- oped/
• Khatib, L. (2017). Syria, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Qatar: the ‘sectarianization’of the Syrian conflict and undermining of democratization in the region. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 10(3), 341- 361. DOI: 10.1080/13530.194.2017.1408456
• Khatib, L. (2018). Tutelary authoritarianism and the shifts between secularism and Islam in Syria. In The Syrian Uprising (pp. 92-105). Routledge.
• Leith, Murray Stewart (2006) Nationalism and national identity in Scottish politics. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow.
• Levitt, M. (2021, 26 Eylül). The Assad Regime’s Business Model for Supporting the Islamic State. The Washington Institute (Erişim tarihi: 10 Temmuz 2022). https://www.bing.com/ search?q=The+Assad+Regime’s+Business+Model+for+Supporting+the+Islamic+Statevecvid= 8580b16376d14336916b3aea7112cd2cveaqs=edge..69i57j69i64.736j0j1vepglt=41ve FORM=ANNTA1vePC=U531
• Los Angeles Times, (2015, 06 Aralık). How does Islamic State make money off oil fields in Syria and Iraq? (Erişim tarihi: 02 Ağustos 2022). https://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-islamic-state- oil-qa-20151206-story.html
• Makdisi, U. (2000). The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-century Ottoman Lebanon. Univ of California Press.
• Martini, A. (2020). The Syrian Wars of Words: İnternational and Local İnstrumentalisations of the War on Terror. Third World Quarterly, 41(4), 725-743. DOI: 10.1080/01436.597.2019.1699784
• Matar, L. (2016). The Political Economy of Investment in Syria. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
• Menshawy, M. (2022). The Irony of Sectarianism: Sectarianizing by Desectarianizing in Syria. Digest of Middle East Studies, 31(2), 131-150. DOI: 10.1111/dome.12263
• Mobaied, S. (2019). The Baatho-Assadist System, a System of Political Instrumentalisation. Open Journal of Political Science, 10(1), 124-133. DOI: 10.4236/ojps.2020.101009
• Mohamed Husein Gaas (2019): Primordialism vs. instrumentalism in Somali society: is an alternative needed?, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, DOI: 10.1080/02589.001.2018.1559279
• O’Leary, B. (2001). Instrumentalist theories of nationalism. Encyclopedia of Nationalism, 148-153.
• Olanrewaju, I., Omotoso, F., Alabi, J., & Ayodele, O. (2019, June). Proto-Nationalism, Instrumentalism and the Liberian Civil War: Challenges for Economic Development. In 6th International Conference on Education, Social Sciences and Humanities, Istanbul, Turkey (pp. 24-26).
• Omelicheva, M. Y. (2016). Islam and Power Legitimation: Instrumentalisation of Religion in Central Asian States. Contemporary Politics, 22(2), 144-163. DOI: 10.1080/13569.775.2016.1153287
• Ozkirimli, U. (2017). Theories of nationalism: A critical introduction. Bloomsbury Publishing.
• Phillips, C. (2015). Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria. Third World Quarterly, 36(2), 357-376. DOI: 10.1080/01436.597.2015.1015788
• Reed, J. (2015, 09 Haziran). Will Assad Put Himself in US Crosshairs by Working With ISIL? (Erişim tarihi: 14 Ağustos 2022). https://www.justsecurity.org/23528/assad-put-crosshairs-working-isil/
• Reuters, 2013, 23 Mart). Fearing stark future, Syrian Alawites meet in Cairo, (Erişim tarihi: 05 Ekim 2022). https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-alawites-idUSBRE92M00G20130323
• Reyko Huang (2019): Religious Instrumentalism in Violent Conflict, Ethnopolitics, DOI: 10.1080/17449.057.2019.1676525
• Sağıroğlu, C. (2022). Milliyetçilik ve Siyasal Şiddetin Araçsallaştırılması: Tamil Örneği. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (41), 242-277.
• Schmidt, S. (2018). The Power of ‘Sultanism’: Why Syria’s Non-violent Protests did not Lead to a Democratic Transition in The Syrian Uprising, Routledge (pp. 30-43).
• Shaery-Yazdi, R. ve Ümit Üngör, U. (2022). Mass Violence in Syria: Continuity and Change. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 49(3), 397-402.
• Sluglett, P. (2016). Deadly implications: The Rise of Sectarianism in Syria. The Levant in Turmoil (pp. 39- 55). Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
• Spencer, R. (2014, 20 Ocak). ‘Syria’s Duplicity over al-Qaeda Means West Will not Trust Assad’, The Telegraph (Erişim tarihi: 20 Ağustos 2022). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/ middleeast/syria/10585394/Syrias-duplicity-over-al-Qaeda-means-West-will-nottrust-Assad.html;
• Spencer, R. (2016, 11 Mayıs). Four jihadists, one prison: all released by Assad and all now dead. The Telegraph (Erişim tarihi: 19 Temmuz 2022).
• TDA, (2016, 26 Şubat). Sectarianism in Syria: Survey Study. The Day After. https://tda-sy.org/2016/02/26/1435/
• The Guardian, (2011, 28 Mayıs). ‘One, One, One, the Syrian People are One’ (Erişim tarihi: 15 Ağustos 2022). https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/may/28/syrian-alawites-protests
• The Guardian, (2012, 04 Şubat). Fury Over Homs Massacre as UN Security Council Gathers for Syria Vote (Erişim tarihi: 10 Temmuz 2022). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/04/ homs-massacre-un-vote-syria
• The Telegraph, (2016, 25 Nisan). Assad cut a deal with ISIL that helped jihadists get more than US$40M per month from oil (Erişim tarihi: 20 Temmuz 2022).
• UNSC. (2015, 30 Eylül). The Assad regime created the environment in which extremism and ISIL in particular flourished (Erişim tarihi: 05 Eylül 2022). https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the- assad-regime-created-the-environment-in-which-extremism-and-isil-in-particular-flourished
• Valbjørn, M. (2020). Beyond the Beyond (s): On the (many) Third Way (s) Beyond Primordialism and İnstrumentalism in the Study of Sectarianism.” Nations and Nationalism 26(1).
• Valbjørn, M. ve Hinnebusch, R. (2018). Playing’the Sectarian Card’in a Sectarianized New Middle East. Babylon Nordisk tidsskrift for Midtøstenstudier, (2), 42-55.
• Van Dam, N. (2011). Struggle for Power in Syria. I. B. Tauris, New York.
• Van Wagenen, W. (2018). Did Assad Deliberately Release Islamic Prisoners to Militarize and Radicalize the Syrian Uprising. The Libertarian Institute.
• Weiss, M. (2010). In the Shadow of Sectarianism: Law, Shiism, and the Making of Modern Lebanon. Harvard University Press.
• Wieland, C. (2015). Alawis in the Syrian Opposition. The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant, 225-243.