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Public Diplomacy in The Fight Against Terrorism: Media Representation of PKK/PYD in Finland and Sweden's Application Process to NATO

Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 1, 1 - 19, 30.06.2024

Abstract

Russia's intervention in Ukraine has led to security concerns in Europe. Finland and Sweden applied for NATO membership due to their border with Russia and increased geopolitical risks. The approaches of these two countries toward Türkiye's security concerns posed significant challenges in the fight against the PKK terrorist organization. Türkiye therefore opposed the NATO membership process of these countries. The study focuses on the 48 days between May 13, 2022, when Finland and Sweden applied for NATO membership, and June 29, 2022, when the countries signed the memorandum of understanding. In the study, op-ed articles and news articles in The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal and The Guardian Newspapers were analyzed using qualitative content analysis in the context of framing theory and purposive sampling method. The study analyzed the representation of Türkiye's counterterrorism discourse in the context of public diplomacy in selected media. To compare Türkiye's public diplomacy discourse, the interviews, and op-ed pieces of Fahrettin Altun, the Director of Communication, with European media were analyzed. In the study, it was determined that the PKK was tried to be legitimized by positioning it as an anti-DAESH force through the PYD. Türkiye's security concerns and rhetoric against the terrorist organization were framed as a country trying to extract concessions from NATO and using this process to buy F16 fighter jets from the US. The study suggests that Türkiye's public diplomacy activities in the fight against terrorism should be planned for the long term.

References

  • Aslan, M. (2022). Türkiye’de Güvenlik Algısının Kavramsal ve Pragmatik Dönüşümü: Modern Dönemlerin Karşılaştırılması. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(3), 1647-1666.
  • Avşar, Z. (2017). İnternet çağında medya, terör ve güvenlik. TRT akademi, 2(3), 116-132.
  • Aydemir, E. (2018a). Publıc Dıplomacy As A Counterterrorısm Tool. Ulakbilge Dergisi, 6(23). https://doi.org/10.7816/ulakbilge-06-23-07
  • Aydemir, E. (2018b). Terörle Mücadele Aracı Olarak Kamu Diplomasisi. Ulakbilge Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(23), 509-524.
  • Bayraklı, E., Yalçın, H. B., & Yeşiltaş, M. (Ed.). (2019). Avrupa’da PKK yapılanması (1. baskı). SETA Vakfı İktisadi İşletmesi.
  • BBC. (2022, Mayıs 19). Türkiye, Finlandiya ve İsveç’in NATO üyeliğine neden karşı çıkıyor; Ankara’nın kaygıları giderilebilecek mi? BBC News Türkçe. https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-61492109
  • Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: The press and the public good. Oxford University Press.
  • Cull, N. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past (C. 12). Figueroa Press Los Angeles, CA.
  • Devran, Y. (2015). Medya Ve Terör Sorunsalı. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 85-94.
  • Dinc, P. (2020). The Kurdish movement and the democratic federation of northern Syria: An alternative to the (nation-) state model? Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 22(1), 47-67.
  • Ejaz, W. (2012). How Do Countries Conduct Public Diplomacy During Their Bilateral Relationship Crisis?
  • Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of communication, 43(4), 51-58.
  • Entman, R. M. (2008). Theorizing mediated public diplomacy: The US case. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(2), 87-102.
  • Gilboa, E. (2008). Searching for a theory of public diplomacy. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616(1), 55-77.
  • Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching. Mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left, Berkeley. CA: University of California Press.[Google Scholar].
  • Golan, G. J. (2015). An Integrated Approach to Public Diplomacy. İçinde G. J. Golan & S.-U. Yang (Ed.), International Public Relations and Public Diplomacy: Communication and Engagement (ss. 417-440).
  • Golan, G. J., & Carroll, T. R. (2012). The op-ed as a strategic tool of public diplomacy: Framing of the 2011 Egyptian revolution. Public Relations Review, 38(4), 630-632.
  • Golan, G. J., & Viatchaninova, E. (2013). Government Social Responsibility in Public Diplomacy: Russia’s strategic use of advertorials. Public Relations Review, 39(4), 403-405.
  • Hallahan, K. (1999). Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 11(3), 205-242. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr1103_02
  • He, Z., Xianhong, C., & Xing, W. (2012). The image of the United States in the Chinese media: An examination of the evaluative component of framing. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 676-683.
  • Kahraman, S. (2021). Baskı Gruplarının Politika Transferlerinde Etkililiği. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), Article 2.
  • Kaya, R. (2020). Harekâtlar Ekseninde Türkiye’nin Suriye’de Terörle Mücadelesi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), Article 2.
  • Khakimova Storie, L., Madden, S. L., & Liu, B. F. (2014). The death of bin Laden: How Russian and U.S. media frame counterterrorism. Public Relations Review, 40(3), 429-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.01.009
  • Kılıçer, D. (2022, Mayıs 20). NATO’ya katılım, veto örnekleri ve Türkiye vetosu. Bianet - Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi. https://www.bianet.org/bianet/siyaset/262104-nato-ya-katilim-veto-ornekleri-ve-turkiye-vetosu
  • Kunczik, M. (2003). Transnational public relations by foreign governments. İçinde The global public relations handbook (ss. 435-460). Routledge
  • Marschlich, S. (2022). Content Analysis in the Research Field of Public Diplomacy. İçinde Standardisierte Inhaltsanalyse in der Kommunikationswissenschaft–Standardized Content Analysis in Communication Research: Ein Handbuch-A Handbook (ss. 329-337). Springer.
  • Melissen, J. (2005). The New Public Diplomacy: Between Theory and Practice. Içinde J. Melissen (Ed.), The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (ss. 3-27). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230554931_1
  • Metzgar, E. T., & Su, J. (2017). Friends from afar? American media coverage of China’s Confucius Institutes. Journalism Practice, 11(8), 1000-1025.
  • MFA. (t.y.). PKK / T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı. Geliş tarihi 26 Mart 2023, gönderen https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.tr.mfa
  • Norris, P., Kern, M., & Just, M. (2003). Framing Terrorism. İçinde Framing Terrorism. Routledge.
  • Özarslan, H., & Güran, M. (2015). İletişim Araştırmalarında Çerçeveleme Paradigması: Son Döneme Ait Bir İnceleme. Selçuk İletişim, 8(4), 32-48.
  • Özer, N. P. (2019). Gazete Haberlerinde Manipülasyon 28 Şubat Örneği. Medeniyet ve Toplum Dergisi, 3(2), Article 2.
  • Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Framing analysis: An approach to news discourse. Political communication, 10(1), 55-75.
  • Papacharissi, Z., & de Fatima Oliveira, M. (2008). News frames terrorism: A comparative analysis of frames employed in terrorism coverage in US and UK newspapers. The international journal of press/politics, 13(1), 52-74.
  • Rettig, E., & Avraham, E. (2016). The Role of Intergovernmental Organizations in the “Battle over Framing” The Case of the Israeli–West Bank Separation Barrier. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 21(1), 111-133.
  • Riordan, S. (2005). Dialogue-based public diplomacy: A new foreign policy paradigm? Springer.
  • Rothenberger, L. (2014). Terrorism as strategic communication. İçinde The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication (ss. 505-520). Routledge.
  • Rothenberger, L., & Hase, V. (2022). Content analysis in the research field of terrorism coverage. İçinde Standardisierte Inhaltsanalyse in der Kommunikationswissenschaft–Standardized Content Analysis in Communication Research: Ein Handbuch-A Handbook (ss. 137-146). Springer.
  • Ryan, M. (2004). Framing the War Against Terrorism: US Newspaper Editorials and Military Action in Afghanistan. Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands), 66(5), 363-382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016549204045918
  • Scheufele, D. (1999). Framing as a theory of media effects. Journal of Communication.
  • Seib, P. (2011). Public diplomacy, new media, and counterterrorism. CDP Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, 2.
  • Severin, W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (1994). Kitle İletişim Kuramları Kökenleri, Yöntem ve Kitle İletişim Araçlarında Kullanımları. Çev: Ali Atıf Bir ve Serdar Sever), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi.
  • Sheafer, T., & Gabay, I. (2009). Mediated public diplomacy: A strategic contest over international agenda building and frame building. Political communication, 26(4), 447-467.
  • Snow, N. (2007). Media, terrorism, and the politics of fear. MediaDevelopment, 17-22.
  • Soner, B. A., Aslan, Ö., & Kıyıcı, H. (2017). PKK’s regional franchise of terror. International Center for Terrorism and Security Studies.
  • Storie, L. K., Madden, S. L., & Liu, B. F. (2014). The death of bin Laden: How Russian and US media frame counterterrorism. Public Relations Review, 40(3), 429-439.
  • Taylor, P. M. (2008). Public diplomacy and strategic communications. İçinde Routledge handbook of public diplomacy (ss. 32-36). Routledge.
  • Tuch, H. N. (1990). Communicating with the world: US public diplomacy overseas. Springer.
  • Van Ham, P. (2003). War, lies, and videotape: Public diplomacy and the USA’s war on terrorism. Security Dialogue, 34(4), 427-444.
  • Yarchi, M., Wolfsfeld, G., Sheafer, T., & Shenhav, S. R. (2013). Promoting stories about terrorism to the international news media: A study of public diplomacy. Media, war & conflict, 6(3), 263-278
  • Yıldırım, A., & Hasan Şimşek. (2016). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Seçkin.

Terörle Mücadelede Kamu Diplomasisi: Finlandiya ve İsveç’in NATO’ya Başvuru Sürecinde PKK/PYD’nin Medyada Temsili

Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 1, 1 - 19, 30.06.2024

Abstract

Rusya’nın Ukrayna’ya müdahalesi Avrupa’da güvenlik endişelerine yol açtı. Özellikle Finlandiya ve İsveç Rusya ile sınır ülkeleri olmaları ve artan jeopolitik riskler nedeni ile NATO’ya üyelik başvurusunda bulundu. Bu iki ülkenin Türkiye’nin güvenlik kaygılarına yönelik yaklaşımları PKK terör örgütü ile mücadelede önemli zorluklar oluşturmaktaydı. Türkiye bu nedenle söz konusu ülkelerin NATO üyelik sürecine karşı çıktı. Çalışmada, Finlandiya ve İsveç’in NATO’ya üyelik için başvurdukları 13 Mayıs 2022 tarihi ve ilgili ülkelerin 29 Haziran 2022 tarihinde mutabakat metnini imzaladıkları 48 günlük zaman dilimi ele alınmıştır. Araştırmada, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Guardian Gazetelerindeki Op-Ed yazıları ve haberler çerçeveleme teorisi bağlamında nitel içerik analizi kullanılarak, amaçlı örneklem yöntemi ile incelenmiştir. Çalışmada Türkiye’nin bu süreçte terörle mücadele söyleminin seçili medyada kamu diplomasi bağlamında temsili analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmada ayrıca Türkiye’nin kamu diplomasi söylemini karşılaştırmak amacı ile İletişim Başkanı Fahrettin Altun’un Avrupa medyasına verdiği röportajlar ve Op-Ed yazıları incelenmiştir. Çalışmada, PKK’nın PYD üzerinden DAEŞ karşıtı bir güç olarak konumlandırılarak meşrulaştırılmaya çalışıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Türkiye’nin güvenlik kaygıları ve terör örgütüne yönelik söylemleri NATO’dan taviz koparmaya çalışan ve ABD’den F16 savaş uçağı alabilmek için bu süreci kullanan bir ülke olarak çerçevelenmiştir. Araştırmada, Türkiye’nin terörle mücadele kapsamında gerçekleştirdiği kamu diplomasisi faaliyetlerinin uzun dönemli olarak planlanması gerektiği önerilmiştir.

References

  • Aslan, M. (2022). Türkiye’de Güvenlik Algısının Kavramsal ve Pragmatik Dönüşümü: Modern Dönemlerin Karşılaştırılması. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(3), 1647-1666.
  • Avşar, Z. (2017). İnternet çağında medya, terör ve güvenlik. TRT akademi, 2(3), 116-132.
  • Aydemir, E. (2018a). Publıc Dıplomacy As A Counterterrorısm Tool. Ulakbilge Dergisi, 6(23). https://doi.org/10.7816/ulakbilge-06-23-07
  • Aydemir, E. (2018b). Terörle Mücadele Aracı Olarak Kamu Diplomasisi. Ulakbilge Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(23), 509-524.
  • Bayraklı, E., Yalçın, H. B., & Yeşiltaş, M. (Ed.). (2019). Avrupa’da PKK yapılanması (1. baskı). SETA Vakfı İktisadi İşletmesi.
  • BBC. (2022, Mayıs 19). Türkiye, Finlandiya ve İsveç’in NATO üyeliğine neden karşı çıkıyor; Ankara’nın kaygıları giderilebilecek mi? BBC News Türkçe. https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-61492109
  • Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: The press and the public good. Oxford University Press.
  • Cull, N. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past (C. 12). Figueroa Press Los Angeles, CA.
  • Devran, Y. (2015). Medya Ve Terör Sorunsalı. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 85-94.
  • Dinc, P. (2020). The Kurdish movement and the democratic federation of northern Syria: An alternative to the (nation-) state model? Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 22(1), 47-67.
  • Ejaz, W. (2012). How Do Countries Conduct Public Diplomacy During Their Bilateral Relationship Crisis?
  • Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of communication, 43(4), 51-58.
  • Entman, R. M. (2008). Theorizing mediated public diplomacy: The US case. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(2), 87-102.
  • Gilboa, E. (2008). Searching for a theory of public diplomacy. The annals of the American academy of political and social science, 616(1), 55-77.
  • Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching. Mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left, Berkeley. CA: University of California Press.[Google Scholar].
  • Golan, G. J. (2015). An Integrated Approach to Public Diplomacy. İçinde G. J. Golan & S.-U. Yang (Ed.), International Public Relations and Public Diplomacy: Communication and Engagement (ss. 417-440).
  • Golan, G. J., & Carroll, T. R. (2012). The op-ed as a strategic tool of public diplomacy: Framing of the 2011 Egyptian revolution. Public Relations Review, 38(4), 630-632.
  • Golan, G. J., & Viatchaninova, E. (2013). Government Social Responsibility in Public Diplomacy: Russia’s strategic use of advertorials. Public Relations Review, 39(4), 403-405.
  • Hallahan, K. (1999). Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. Journal of Public Relations Research, 11(3), 205-242. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr1103_02
  • He, Z., Xianhong, C., & Xing, W. (2012). The image of the United States in the Chinese media: An examination of the evaluative component of framing. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 676-683.
  • Kahraman, S. (2021). Baskı Gruplarının Politika Transferlerinde Etkililiği. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), Article 2.
  • Kaya, R. (2020). Harekâtlar Ekseninde Türkiye’nin Suriye’de Terörle Mücadelesi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), Article 2.
  • Khakimova Storie, L., Madden, S. L., & Liu, B. F. (2014). The death of bin Laden: How Russian and U.S. media frame counterterrorism. Public Relations Review, 40(3), 429-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.01.009
  • Kılıçer, D. (2022, Mayıs 20). NATO’ya katılım, veto örnekleri ve Türkiye vetosu. Bianet - Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi. https://www.bianet.org/bianet/siyaset/262104-nato-ya-katilim-veto-ornekleri-ve-turkiye-vetosu
  • Kunczik, M. (2003). Transnational public relations by foreign governments. İçinde The global public relations handbook (ss. 435-460). Routledge
  • Marschlich, S. (2022). Content Analysis in the Research Field of Public Diplomacy. İçinde Standardisierte Inhaltsanalyse in der Kommunikationswissenschaft–Standardized Content Analysis in Communication Research: Ein Handbuch-A Handbook (ss. 329-337). Springer.
  • Melissen, J. (2005). The New Public Diplomacy: Between Theory and Practice. Içinde J. Melissen (Ed.), The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (ss. 3-27). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230554931_1
  • Metzgar, E. T., & Su, J. (2017). Friends from afar? American media coverage of China’s Confucius Institutes. Journalism Practice, 11(8), 1000-1025.
  • MFA. (t.y.). PKK / T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı. Geliş tarihi 26 Mart 2023, gönderen https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.tr.mfa
  • Norris, P., Kern, M., & Just, M. (2003). Framing Terrorism. İçinde Framing Terrorism. Routledge.
  • Özarslan, H., & Güran, M. (2015). İletişim Araştırmalarında Çerçeveleme Paradigması: Son Döneme Ait Bir İnceleme. Selçuk İletişim, 8(4), 32-48.
  • Özer, N. P. (2019). Gazete Haberlerinde Manipülasyon 28 Şubat Örneği. Medeniyet ve Toplum Dergisi, 3(2), Article 2.
  • Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Framing analysis: An approach to news discourse. Political communication, 10(1), 55-75.
  • Papacharissi, Z., & de Fatima Oliveira, M. (2008). News frames terrorism: A comparative analysis of frames employed in terrorism coverage in US and UK newspapers. The international journal of press/politics, 13(1), 52-74.
  • Rettig, E., & Avraham, E. (2016). The Role of Intergovernmental Organizations in the “Battle over Framing” The Case of the Israeli–West Bank Separation Barrier. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 21(1), 111-133.
  • Riordan, S. (2005). Dialogue-based public diplomacy: A new foreign policy paradigm? Springer.
  • Rothenberger, L. (2014). Terrorism as strategic communication. İçinde The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication (ss. 505-520). Routledge.
  • Rothenberger, L., & Hase, V. (2022). Content analysis in the research field of terrorism coverage. İçinde Standardisierte Inhaltsanalyse in der Kommunikationswissenschaft–Standardized Content Analysis in Communication Research: Ein Handbuch-A Handbook (ss. 137-146). Springer.
  • Ryan, M. (2004). Framing the War Against Terrorism: US Newspaper Editorials and Military Action in Afghanistan. Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands), 66(5), 363-382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016549204045918
  • Scheufele, D. (1999). Framing as a theory of media effects. Journal of Communication.
  • Seib, P. (2011). Public diplomacy, new media, and counterterrorism. CDP Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, 2.
  • Severin, W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (1994). Kitle İletişim Kuramları Kökenleri, Yöntem ve Kitle İletişim Araçlarında Kullanımları. Çev: Ali Atıf Bir ve Serdar Sever), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi.
  • Sheafer, T., & Gabay, I. (2009). Mediated public diplomacy: A strategic contest over international agenda building and frame building. Political communication, 26(4), 447-467.
  • Snow, N. (2007). Media, terrorism, and the politics of fear. MediaDevelopment, 17-22.
  • Soner, B. A., Aslan, Ö., & Kıyıcı, H. (2017). PKK’s regional franchise of terror. International Center for Terrorism and Security Studies.
  • Storie, L. K., Madden, S. L., & Liu, B. F. (2014). The death of bin Laden: How Russian and US media frame counterterrorism. Public Relations Review, 40(3), 429-439.
  • Taylor, P. M. (2008). Public diplomacy and strategic communications. İçinde Routledge handbook of public diplomacy (ss. 32-36). Routledge.
  • Tuch, H. N. (1990). Communicating with the world: US public diplomacy overseas. Springer.
  • Van Ham, P. (2003). War, lies, and videotape: Public diplomacy and the USA’s war on terrorism. Security Dialogue, 34(4), 427-444.
  • Yarchi, M., Wolfsfeld, G., Sheafer, T., & Shenhav, S. R. (2013). Promoting stories about terrorism to the international news media: A study of public diplomacy. Media, war & conflict, 6(3), 263-278
  • Yıldırım, A., & Hasan Şimşek. (2016). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Seçkin.
There are 51 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Communication and Media Studies (Other)
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Faruk Yazar 0000-0002-1663-1371

Early Pub Date February 9, 2024
Publication Date June 30, 2024
Submission Date December 16, 2023
Acceptance Date February 5, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Volume: 8 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Yazar, F. (2024). Terörle Mücadelede Kamu Diplomasisi: Finlandiya ve İsveç’in NATO’ya Başvuru Sürecinde PKK/PYD’nin Medyada Temsili. Medeniyet Ve Toplum Dergisi, 8(1), 1-19.