Kazanç Yönetimi İle Karlılık Oranları İlişkisi: BİST’ te Bir Uygulama
Year 2021,
, 295 - 312, 16.08.2021
Suat Kara
,
Ahmet Mesut Toraman
Abstract
Şirketler tarafından sunulan finansal tablolar çoğu zaman bu tabloların kullanıcıları tarafından incelenmekte ve
yatırım kararı verme sürecinde etkili olmaktadır. Bazı işletmelerin sundukları finansal tablolarındaki bilgiler, olması
gerektiğinden daha farklı gösterilerek finansal tablo kullanıcılarını yanıltabilmektedir. Dolayısıyla karını artıran ya da
artmış gibi gösteren şirketlerin hisse senetlerine olan talepte de artış olabilecektir. Bu amaçla bazı şirketler finansal
performanslarını daha iyi göstermek için muhasebe politikalarında değişikliklere gidebilmekte ve böylece yatırımcıların
algılarını çeşitli yönlerde etkileyerek kar beklentilerini artırabilmektedir. Bu olaylar kazanç yönetimini gündeme getirmiş ve
üzerine yoğunlaşılmasına neden olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Beneish modeli kullanılarak hisse senetleri BIST’ te işlem gören
imalat sanayiindeki işletmelerin karlılık oranları ile kazanç yönetimi arasındaki ilişki araştırılmıştır. Şirketlere ait 2015-2019
yıllarına ait finansal tablolardan elde edilen bilgiler çerçevesinde kazanç yönetimine etkisi olabilecek karlılık oranları,
diskriminant (ayırma) analizi ile test edilmiştir. Analiz sonuçlarına göre, ekonomik karlılık ve satış karlılığı oranlarının
şirketlerde kazanç yönetimine açık değişkenler olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
References
- Ajide, Folorunsho Monsuru - Aderemi, Azeeze Adetunji (2014), “The Effects Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy In Nigeria: An Empirical Note”, Financial & Business Management, Vol. 2, Iss. 3, pp. 145-152.
- Alhadab, Mohammad M. - Al-Own, Bassam (2017), “Earnings Management and Banks Performance: Evidence from Europe”, International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, Vol. 7, Iss. 4, pp. 134-145.
- Altuk Özden, Evrim - Ataman, Başak (2014), “Kar Yöneti̇mi̇ ve Yöntemleri̇” Marmara Üniversitesi Öneri Dergisi, Cilt 11, Sayı 42, ss. 13–25.
- Ayarlıoğlu, Mehmet Akif (2007), “Kar Yönetimi Uygulamaları ve İstanbul Menkul Kıymetler Borsa İstanbul’ da İşlem Gören Şirketler Üzerine Uygulama”, Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, Sayı 16, ss. 756-770.
- Bekçi, İsmail - Avşarlıgil, Nuri (2011), “Finansal Bilgi Manipülasyonu Yöntemlerinden Yaratıcı Muhasebe ve Bir Uygulama”, MÖDAV Dergisi, Cilt 13, Sayı 2, ss. 131-162.
- Beneish, Messod D. (1999), “The Detection of Earnings Manipulation”, Financial Analysts Journal, Vol. 55, Iss. 5, pp. 24-36.
- Bozkurt, Nejat (2000), “Mali Tablolarda İşletme Yönetimleri Tarafından Yapılan Muhasebe Hileleri”,Muhasebe Finansman Dergisi, Sayı:12, ss.147-150.
- Burgstahler, David - Dichev, Ilia (1997), “Earnings Management to Avoid Earnings Decreases and Losses”,Journal of Accounting and Economics, Vol. 24, Iss. 1, pp. 99–126
- Cengiz, Selim - Dilsiz, M.Şükrü - Aslanoğlu, Suphi (2016), “Kar Dağıtım Politikasının Kazanç Yönetimi Uygulamaları Üzerindeki Etkis”, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, Sayı: 70, ss. 39-54.
- Cudia, Cynthia P. – Cruz, Aeson Luiz C. Dela (2018), “Determinants of Earnings Management Choice among Publicly Listed Industrial Firms in the Philippines”, De La Salle University DLSU Business & Economics Review, Vol. 27, Iss. 2, pp. 119-129.
- Çetinel, Tuğba (2016), “Kazanç Yönetiminin Firmaların Piyasa Değeri Üzerine Etkisi: BİST Firmalarına Yönelik Uygulama”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi.
- Çıtak, Nermin (2009), “Yaratıcı Muhasebe Hileli Finansal Raporlama mıdır?” Mali Çözüm Dergisi, Sayı:91, ss. 81–112.
- Dechow, Patricia M. - Sloan, Richard G. - Sweeney, Amy P. (1995), “Detecting Earnings Management”, Accounting Review, Vol.70, Iss.:2, pp. 193–225.
- Dechow, Patricia M. - Sloan, Richard G. - Sweeney, Amy P. (1996), “Causes and Consequences of Earnings Manipulations: An Analysis of Firms Subject to Enforcement Actions by the SEC”, Contemporary Accounting Research, Vol.13, Issue 1, pp. 1-36.
- Easterbrook, Frank H. (1984), “Two Agency-cost Explanations of Dividends”, American Economic Review, September, Vol.74, Iss. 4, pp. 650-659.
- Ghazali, Aziatul Waznah - Shafie, Nur Aima - Sanusi, Zuraidah Mohd (2015). “Earnings Management: An Analysis of Opportunistic Behaviour, Monitoring Mechanismand Financial Distress”, Procedia Economics and Earnings Finance, Volume 28, pp. 190-201.
- Giroux, Gary (2004), “Detecting Earnings Management”, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Vol. 19, Iss.3, pp. 382-383.
- Gümüş, Umut Tolga - Bolel, Neslihan (2017), “Rasyo Analizleri İle Finansal Performansın Ölçülmesi: Borsa İstanbul’da Faaliyet Gösteren Havayolu Şirketleri’nde Bir Uygulama”, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cit 4, Sayı 2, ss. 87–96.
- Haider, Jahanzaib - Akbar, Ali - Sadiq, Tahira (2012), “Earning Management And Dividend Policy: Empirical Evidence From Pakistani Listed Companies”, European Journal Of Business and Management, Vol. 4, pp. 83-90.
- Healy, Paul M. - Palepu, Krishna G. (2003), “The Fall of Enron”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 17, Iss. 2, pp. 3-26.
- Healy, Paul M. – Wahlen, James M. (1999), “A Review of the Earnings Management Literature and Its Implications for Standard Setting”, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 13, Iss. 4, pp. 365-383.
- Hız, Gülay – Kızgın, Yıldıray (2011), “Gelire Göre Lüks Ve Markalı Ürünlere Özgü Tüketici Davranış Değişkenlerinin Ayırma Analizi İle Belirlenmesi”, Ufuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 1, Sayı 1, ss. 42-62.
- Imhoff, Eugene A. (2003), “Accounting Quality, Auditing, and Corporate Governance”, Accounting Horizons, Issue 17, pp. 119-123.
- Jang, Geun Bea - Kim, Weon Jae (2017), “Effects Of Key Financial Indicators On Earnings Management In Korea’s Ready Mixed Concrete Industry”, Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 33, Iss. 2, pp. 329–342. https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v33i2.9905
- Jones, Jennifier J. (1991), “Earnings Management During Import Relief Investigations”, Journalof Accounting Research, Vol. 29, Iss.2, pp. 193–228.
- Kalaycı, Şeref (2010), SPSS Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikleri, 5. Baskı, Asil Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti., Ankara.
- Khanna, Manisha - Monika Khanna (2015), “Impact Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy Indian Companies”, International Journal Of Multi disciplinary Research And Development, Vol.2, pp. 352-356.
- Larcker, David F. - Richardson Scott A. – Tuna, İrem (2004), “Does Corporate Governance Really Matter?”, Workingpaper, The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania.
- Larcker, David F. – Richardson, Scott A. – Tuna, İrem (2005), “How Important Is Corporate Governance?”, The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania,
SSRN.com/abstract=595821.(E.T.20.02.2021).
- Lee, Chi-Wen Jevons – Laura, Yue Li – Heng, Yue (2006), “Performance, Growth and Earnings Management”, Review of Accounting Studies, 11(2-3), pp. 305-334.
- Lumley, Thomas – Diehr, Paula – Emerson, Scott and Chen, Lu (2002), “The Importance of The Normality Assumption in Large Public Health Data Sets”, Annu. Rev. Public Health, Iss. 23, pp. 151-169.
- Moghri, Ali Esmaeilzadeh – Galogah, Saleh Samakosh (2013), “Effect Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy: Evidence From Tehran Stock Exchange”, World Of Sciences Journal, ISSN: 2307-3071,Vol. 01 Issue: 14, pp. 58-65.
- Mulford, Charles W. - Comiskey, Eugene E. (2002), “The financial Numbers Game: Detecting Creative Accounting Practices”, John Wiley&Sons, Inc, Newyork.
- Nga, L. T. (2016), “Factors Influencing The Earnings Management Of Listed Companies On The Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange”,Master Thesis, University Of Da Nang.
- Purnama, Inda - Nurdiniah, Dade (2018), “Profitability, Firm Size, and Earnings Management: the Moderating Effect of Managerial Ownership”, Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, 1(1), 1., volume 73, (5th Annual International Conference on Accounting Research (AICAR 2018)), pp. 41-46.
- Sadeghi, Seyed Arash - Zareie, Batool (2015), “Relationship Between Earnings Management And Financial Ratios At The Family Firms Listed In the Tehran Stock Exchange”, Indian Journal of Fundemental and Applied Life Sciences, Vol. 5, pp. 1411–1420.
- Sağlar, Jale - Kandemir, Canol (2007), “Enron Olayı: Muhasebe Hilesi mi, Sistem Hatası mı?”, Çukurova Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, Cilt 11, Sayı 1, ss. 20-39.
- Schipper, Katherine (1989), “Commentary on Earnings Management”, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 3, Iss. 4, pp. 91–102.
- Shah, Syed Zulfiqar Ali - Hui, Yuan - Zafar, Nousheen (2010), “Earning Management And Dividend Policy: An Empirical Comparison Between Pakistani Listed And Chinese Listed Companies”. International Research Journal Of Finance And Economics, Issue 35, pp. 112-126.
- Temiz, Hüseyin – Dalkılıç, Elçin – Hacıhasanoğlu, Tansel (2017), “Yönetim Kurulu Yapısı ve Kâr Yönetimi Uygulamaları: BİST İmalat Sektörü Örneği”, BMIJ, Cilt 5, Sayı 4, ss. 119-136.
- Terzi, Serkan (2011), “Finansal Rasyolar Yardımıyla Finansal Başarısızlık Tahmini: Gıda Sektöründe Ampirik Bir Araştırma”, Çukurova Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 15, Sayı 1, ss. 1-18. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cuiibfd/issue/4147/54448(21.02.2021)
- Thanh Cuong, Nguyen - Thanh Ha, Nguhen Thi (2018), “Influence of Financial Ratios on Earnings Management:Evidence from Vietnam Stock Exchange Market”, Journal of Insurance and Financial Management, Vol. 4, Iss. 1, pp. 57–77.
- Tuan, Koray - Borak, Metin (2020), “Kazanç Yönetimi ve Finansal Performans: Borsa İstanbul Üzerine Ampirik Bir Araştırma”, Sosyoekonomi, Cilt 28, Sayı 44, ss. 381-393
- Varıcı, İdris - Er, Bünyamin (2013), “Muhasebe Manipülasyonu ve Firma Performansı İlişkisi: IMKB Uygulaması”, Ege Akademik Bakış, Cilt 13, Sayı 1, ss. 43-52.
- Zabrosky, Alex W. (2003), "Sarbanes-Oxley Law of Opportunity and Liability", Consulting to Management, Vol. 14, Iss. 2, ss. 1-26.
Testing Of The Relationship Between Earning Management And Profitability Rate In Borsa Istanbul
Year 2021,
, 295 - 312, 16.08.2021
Suat Kara
,
Ahmet Mesut Toraman
Abstract
Financial statements presented by businesses are often reviewed by the users of these statements and are effective in
the investment decision-making process. Some companies mislead users of financial statements by showing the information in
the financial statements presented differently than they should be. Therefore, there may be an increase in the demand for the
stocks of enterprises that increase their profits or appear to have increased. For this purpose, some businesses can make
changes in their accounting policies in order to better show their financial performance and thus increase their profit
expectations by affecting the perceptions of investors in various ways. These events brought earnings management to the
agenda and caused concentration on it. In this study, the relationship between profitability ratios and earnings management
of enterprises in the manufacturing industry whose stocks are traded in BIST was investigated using the Beneish model.
Within the framework of the information obtained from the financial statements of the companies for the years 2015-2019,
the profitability ratios that may have an impact on earnings management were tested with discriminant analysis. According
to the analysis results, it has been determined that economic profitability and sales profitability ratios are variables open to
earnings management in companies.
References
- Ajide, Folorunsho Monsuru - Aderemi, Azeeze Adetunji (2014), “The Effects Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy In Nigeria: An Empirical Note”, Financial & Business Management, Vol. 2, Iss. 3, pp. 145-152.
- Alhadab, Mohammad M. - Al-Own, Bassam (2017), “Earnings Management and Banks Performance: Evidence from Europe”, International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, Vol. 7, Iss. 4, pp. 134-145.
- Altuk Özden, Evrim - Ataman, Başak (2014), “Kar Yöneti̇mi̇ ve Yöntemleri̇” Marmara Üniversitesi Öneri Dergisi, Cilt 11, Sayı 42, ss. 13–25.
- Ayarlıoğlu, Mehmet Akif (2007), “Kar Yönetimi Uygulamaları ve İstanbul Menkul Kıymetler Borsa İstanbul’ da İşlem Gören Şirketler Üzerine Uygulama”, Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, Sayı 16, ss. 756-770.
- Bekçi, İsmail - Avşarlıgil, Nuri (2011), “Finansal Bilgi Manipülasyonu Yöntemlerinden Yaratıcı Muhasebe ve Bir Uygulama”, MÖDAV Dergisi, Cilt 13, Sayı 2, ss. 131-162.
- Beneish, Messod D. (1999), “The Detection of Earnings Manipulation”, Financial Analysts Journal, Vol. 55, Iss. 5, pp. 24-36.
- Bozkurt, Nejat (2000), “Mali Tablolarda İşletme Yönetimleri Tarafından Yapılan Muhasebe Hileleri”,Muhasebe Finansman Dergisi, Sayı:12, ss.147-150.
- Burgstahler, David - Dichev, Ilia (1997), “Earnings Management to Avoid Earnings Decreases and Losses”,Journal of Accounting and Economics, Vol. 24, Iss. 1, pp. 99–126
- Cengiz, Selim - Dilsiz, M.Şükrü - Aslanoğlu, Suphi (2016), “Kar Dağıtım Politikasının Kazanç Yönetimi Uygulamaları Üzerindeki Etkis”, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, Sayı: 70, ss. 39-54.
- Cudia, Cynthia P. – Cruz, Aeson Luiz C. Dela (2018), “Determinants of Earnings Management Choice among Publicly Listed Industrial Firms in the Philippines”, De La Salle University DLSU Business & Economics Review, Vol. 27, Iss. 2, pp. 119-129.
- Çetinel, Tuğba (2016), “Kazanç Yönetiminin Firmaların Piyasa Değeri Üzerine Etkisi: BİST Firmalarına Yönelik Uygulama”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi.
- Çıtak, Nermin (2009), “Yaratıcı Muhasebe Hileli Finansal Raporlama mıdır?” Mali Çözüm Dergisi, Sayı:91, ss. 81–112.
- Dechow, Patricia M. - Sloan, Richard G. - Sweeney, Amy P. (1995), “Detecting Earnings Management”, Accounting Review, Vol.70, Iss.:2, pp. 193–225.
- Dechow, Patricia M. - Sloan, Richard G. - Sweeney, Amy P. (1996), “Causes and Consequences of Earnings Manipulations: An Analysis of Firms Subject to Enforcement Actions by the SEC”, Contemporary Accounting Research, Vol.13, Issue 1, pp. 1-36.
- Easterbrook, Frank H. (1984), “Two Agency-cost Explanations of Dividends”, American Economic Review, September, Vol.74, Iss. 4, pp. 650-659.
- Ghazali, Aziatul Waznah - Shafie, Nur Aima - Sanusi, Zuraidah Mohd (2015). “Earnings Management: An Analysis of Opportunistic Behaviour, Monitoring Mechanismand Financial Distress”, Procedia Economics and Earnings Finance, Volume 28, pp. 190-201.
- Giroux, Gary (2004), “Detecting Earnings Management”, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Vol. 19, Iss.3, pp. 382-383.
- Gümüş, Umut Tolga - Bolel, Neslihan (2017), “Rasyo Analizleri İle Finansal Performansın Ölçülmesi: Borsa İstanbul’da Faaliyet Gösteren Havayolu Şirketleri’nde Bir Uygulama”, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cit 4, Sayı 2, ss. 87–96.
- Haider, Jahanzaib - Akbar, Ali - Sadiq, Tahira (2012), “Earning Management And Dividend Policy: Empirical Evidence From Pakistani Listed Companies”, European Journal Of Business and Management, Vol. 4, pp. 83-90.
- Healy, Paul M. - Palepu, Krishna G. (2003), “The Fall of Enron”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 17, Iss. 2, pp. 3-26.
- Healy, Paul M. – Wahlen, James M. (1999), “A Review of the Earnings Management Literature and Its Implications for Standard Setting”, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 13, Iss. 4, pp. 365-383.
- Hız, Gülay – Kızgın, Yıldıray (2011), “Gelire Göre Lüks Ve Markalı Ürünlere Özgü Tüketici Davranış Değişkenlerinin Ayırma Analizi İle Belirlenmesi”, Ufuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 1, Sayı 1, ss. 42-62.
- Imhoff, Eugene A. (2003), “Accounting Quality, Auditing, and Corporate Governance”, Accounting Horizons, Issue 17, pp. 119-123.
- Jang, Geun Bea - Kim, Weon Jae (2017), “Effects Of Key Financial Indicators On Earnings Management In Korea’s Ready Mixed Concrete Industry”, Journal of Applied Business Research, Vol. 33, Iss. 2, pp. 329–342. https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v33i2.9905
- Jones, Jennifier J. (1991), “Earnings Management During Import Relief Investigations”, Journalof Accounting Research, Vol. 29, Iss.2, pp. 193–228.
- Kalaycı, Şeref (2010), SPSS Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikleri, 5. Baskı, Asil Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti., Ankara.
- Khanna, Manisha - Monika Khanna (2015), “Impact Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy Indian Companies”, International Journal Of Multi disciplinary Research And Development, Vol.2, pp. 352-356.
- Larcker, David F. - Richardson Scott A. – Tuna, İrem (2004), “Does Corporate Governance Really Matter?”, Workingpaper, The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania.
- Larcker, David F. – Richardson, Scott A. – Tuna, İrem (2005), “How Important Is Corporate Governance?”, The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania,
SSRN.com/abstract=595821.(E.T.20.02.2021).
- Lee, Chi-Wen Jevons – Laura, Yue Li – Heng, Yue (2006), “Performance, Growth and Earnings Management”, Review of Accounting Studies, 11(2-3), pp. 305-334.
- Lumley, Thomas – Diehr, Paula – Emerson, Scott and Chen, Lu (2002), “The Importance of The Normality Assumption in Large Public Health Data Sets”, Annu. Rev. Public Health, Iss. 23, pp. 151-169.
- Moghri, Ali Esmaeilzadeh – Galogah, Saleh Samakosh (2013), “Effect Of Earnings Management On Dividend Policy: Evidence From Tehran Stock Exchange”, World Of Sciences Journal, ISSN: 2307-3071,Vol. 01 Issue: 14, pp. 58-65.
- Mulford, Charles W. - Comiskey, Eugene E. (2002), “The financial Numbers Game: Detecting Creative Accounting Practices”, John Wiley&Sons, Inc, Newyork.
- Nga, L. T. (2016), “Factors Influencing The Earnings Management Of Listed Companies On The Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange”,Master Thesis, University Of Da Nang.
- Purnama, Inda - Nurdiniah, Dade (2018), “Profitability, Firm Size, and Earnings Management: the Moderating Effect of Managerial Ownership”, Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, 1(1), 1., volume 73, (5th Annual International Conference on Accounting Research (AICAR 2018)), pp. 41-46.
- Sadeghi, Seyed Arash - Zareie, Batool (2015), “Relationship Between Earnings Management And Financial Ratios At The Family Firms Listed In the Tehran Stock Exchange”, Indian Journal of Fundemental and Applied Life Sciences, Vol. 5, pp. 1411–1420.
- Sağlar, Jale - Kandemir, Canol (2007), “Enron Olayı: Muhasebe Hilesi mi, Sistem Hatası mı?”, Çukurova Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, Cilt 11, Sayı 1, ss. 20-39.
- Schipper, Katherine (1989), “Commentary on Earnings Management”, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 3, Iss. 4, pp. 91–102.
- Shah, Syed Zulfiqar Ali - Hui, Yuan - Zafar, Nousheen (2010), “Earning Management And Dividend Policy: An Empirical Comparison Between Pakistani Listed And Chinese Listed Companies”. International Research Journal Of Finance And Economics, Issue 35, pp. 112-126.
- Temiz, Hüseyin – Dalkılıç, Elçin – Hacıhasanoğlu, Tansel (2017), “Yönetim Kurulu Yapısı ve Kâr Yönetimi Uygulamaları: BİST İmalat Sektörü Örneği”, BMIJ, Cilt 5, Sayı 4, ss. 119-136.
- Terzi, Serkan (2011), “Finansal Rasyolar Yardımıyla Finansal Başarısızlık Tahmini: Gıda Sektöründe Ampirik Bir Araştırma”, Çukurova Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 15, Sayı 1, ss. 1-18. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cuiibfd/issue/4147/54448(21.02.2021)
- Thanh Cuong, Nguyen - Thanh Ha, Nguhen Thi (2018), “Influence of Financial Ratios on Earnings Management:Evidence from Vietnam Stock Exchange Market”, Journal of Insurance and Financial Management, Vol. 4, Iss. 1, pp. 57–77.
- Tuan, Koray - Borak, Metin (2020), “Kazanç Yönetimi ve Finansal Performans: Borsa İstanbul Üzerine Ampirik Bir Araştırma”, Sosyoekonomi, Cilt 28, Sayı 44, ss. 381-393
- Varıcı, İdris - Er, Bünyamin (2013), “Muhasebe Manipülasyonu ve Firma Performansı İlişkisi: IMKB Uygulaması”, Ege Akademik Bakış, Cilt 13, Sayı 1, ss. 43-52.
- Zabrosky, Alex W. (2003), "Sarbanes-Oxley Law of Opportunity and Liability", Consulting to Management, Vol. 14, Iss. 2, ss. 1-26.