Antrenman, Anabolik steroid bağımlılığı, performans arttırıcı ilaç kullanımı, kas dismorfisi

Year 2023, Volume: 11 Issue: 2, 443 - 454, 31.12.2023

Metin Çınaroğlu

https://doi.org/10.52122/nisantasisbd.1348564

Abstract

Son yıllarda oldukça ön plana çıkan görsellik ve beraberinde getirdiği alışkanlıklar bazı fiziksel rahatsızlıkları ve psikolojik sendromları da ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Antrenman bağımlılığı, anabolik androjenik steroid kullanımı, performans arttırıcı ilaç kullanımı gibi davranışlar kas dismorfisi sendromunu meydana getirmektedir. Bu kapsamlı değerlendirmede gerek kas dismorfisinin getirdiği antrenman bağımlılığı, gerekse daha kaslı olmak için kullanılan steroid ve performans arttırıcı ilaçların psikolojik etkileri derlenmiştir. Henüz Amerika Psikiyatri Derneği tarafından hastalık kategorisinde sınıflandırılmamış kas dismorfisi ve beraberindeki sendromlar oldukça yaygın görülmektedir. Bu sendroma en yakın olan beden algı bozukluğu rahatsızlığı için farmakolojik tedavi ve bilişsel davranışçı terapi ön plana çıkmaktadır. Kas dismorfisi ve benzeri sendromların hastalık kategorisinde değerlendirilmesi için daha fazla kanıta dayalı kontrollü randomize araştırmalara ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.

Keywords

Antrenman bağımlılığı, Anabolik andrejonik steroid bağımlılığı, Performans arttırıcı ilaç bağımlılığı, Kas dismorfisi, beden algı bozukluğu

EXERCISE, ANABOLIC STEROID DEPENDENCE, MUSCLE DYSMORPHIA, PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT DRUG ABUSE

Abstract

Visuality, which has come to the fore in recent years and the habits it brings, also reveal some both physical and psychological syndromes. Behaviours such as training addiction, anabolic androgenic steroid use, and performance-enhancing drug use cause muscle dysmorphia syndrome. In this comprehensive evaluation, both the training addiction caused by muscle dysmorphia and the psychological effects of steroids and performance-enhancing drugs used to become more muscular were compiled. Muscle dysmorphia and its accompanying syndromes, which have not yet been classified into the disease category by the American Psychiatric Association, are quite common. Pharmacological treatment and cognitive behavioural therapy come to the fore for body perception disorder, which is the closest disorder to this syndrome. More evidence-based controlled randomized studies are needed to evaluate muscle dysmorphia and similar syndromes in the disease category.

Keywords

Exercise addiction, Anabolic androgenic dependence, Performance enhancement drugs abuse, Muscle dysmorphia, Body dysmorphic disorder

References

• Adams, J. (2009). Understanding exercise dependence. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 39, 231-240.
• Aidman, E. V., & Woollard, S. (2003). The influence of self-reported exercise addiction on acute emotional and physiological responses to brief exercise deprivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(3), 225-236.
• Allegre, B., Souville, M., Therme, P., & Griffiths, M. (2006). Definitions and measures of exercise dependence. Addiction research & theory, 14(6), 631-646.
• Allegre, B., Therme, P., & Griffiths, M. (2007). Individual factors and the context of physical activity in exercise dependence: A prospective study of ‘ultra-marathoners’. International journal of mental health and addiction, 5, 233-243.
• American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Task Force. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5™ (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
• American Psychiatric Association, A. P., & American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American psychiatric association.
• Anderson, SJ, Basson, CJ, Geils, C. & Farman, R. (1997). Personality style and mood states associated with a negative addiction to running. South African Journal of Sports Medicine, 4(4), 6-11.
• Baekeland, F. (1970). Exercise deprivation: Sleep and psychological reactions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 22(4), 365-369.
• Bates, G., & McVeigh, J. (2016). Image and performance enhancing drugs. National IPED INFO Survey.
• Baxter, L. R., Schwartz, J. M., Bergman, K. S., Szuba, M. P., Guze, B. H., Mazziotta, J. C., ... & Phelps, M. E. (1992). Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of general psychiatry, 49(9), 681-689.
• Berczik, K., Szabó, A., Griffiths, M. D., Kurimay, T., Kun, B., Urbán, R., & Demetrovics, Z. (2012). Exercise addiction: Symptoms, diagnosis, epidemiology, and etiology. Substance use & misuse, 47(4), 403-417.
• Bjørnebekk, A., Walhovd, K. B., Jørstad, M. L., Due‐Tønnessen, P., Hullstein, I. R., & Fjell, A. M. (2017). Structural brain imaging of long‐ term anabolic‐androgenic steroid users and nonusing weightlifters. Biological Psychiatry, 82, 294–302.
• Brown, R. I. F. (1997). A theoretical model of the behavioural addictions–applied to offending. Addicted to crime, 13-65.
• Kerr, J. (1994). EBOOK: Understanding Soccer Hooliganism. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
• Calogero, R. M., & Pedrotty, K. N. (2004). The practice and process of healthy exercise: an investigation of the treatment of exercise abuse in women with eating disorders. Eating disorders, 12(4), 273-291.
• Cash, T. F. (2005). The influence of sociocultural factors on body image: Searching for constructs. Clinical Psychology: science and practice, 12(4), 438.
• Chen, W. J. (2016). Frequent exercise: A healthy habit or a behavioral addiction?. chronic diseases and translational medicine, 2(04), 235-240.
• Coomber, R., Pavlidis, A., Santos, G. H., Wilde, M., Schmidt W., & Redshaw, C. (2014). The supply of steroids and other performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs) in one English city: Fakes, counterfeits, supplier trust, common beliefs and access. Performance Enhancement & Health, 3(3), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.10.004
• Corazza, O., & Roman‐Urrestarazu, A. (2017). Novel psychoactive sub- stances: Policy, economics and drug regulations. Berlin: Springer (forthcoming).
• Downs, D. S., Hausenblas, H. A., & Nigg, C. R. (2004). Factorial validity and psychometric examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised. Measurement in physical education and exercise science, 8(4), 183-201.
• Evans-Brown, M., McVeigh, J., Perkins, C., & Bellis, M. A. (2012). Human enhancement drugs: the emerging challenges to public health. North West Public Health Observatory.
• Fischer, S., Ehlert, U., & Amiel Castro, R. (2019). Hormones of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐gonadal (HPG) axis in male depressive disorders—A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 55, 100792.
• GAO. (2002). Dietary supplements for weight loss: Limited federal over- sight has focused more on marketing than on safety. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO‐02‐985T
• Garfinkel, P. E., Kennedy, S. H., & Kaplan, A. S. (1995). Views on classification and diagnosis of eating disorders. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 40(8), 445-456.
• Garner, D. (1997). Body image survey results. Psychology Today-New York-, 30, 30-45.
• Graham, M., Ryan, P., Baker, J. S., Davies, B., Thomas, N. E., Cooper, S. M., ... Kicman, A. T. (2009). Counterfeiting in performance and image enhanc- ing drugs. Drug Testing and Analysis, 1(3), 135–142. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/dta.30
• Grieve, F. G. (2007). A conceptual model of factors contributing to the development of muscle dysmorphia. Eating disorders, 15(1), 63-80.
• Hausenblas, H. A., & Downs, D. S. (2002). How much is too much? The development and validation of the exercise dependence scale. Psychology and health, 17(4), 387-404.
• Horwitz, H., Andersen, J. T., & Dalhoff, K. P. (2019). Health consequences of androgenic anabolic steroid use. Journal of internal medicine, 285(3), 333-340.
• Ipser, J. C., Sander, C., & Stein, D. J. (2009). Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy for body dysmorphic disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1).
• Jacobi, L., & Cash, T. F. (1994). In pursuit of the perfect appearance: Discrepancies among self‐ideal percepts of multiple physical attributes 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(5), 379-396.
• Kamber, M., & Mullis, P. E. (2010). The worldwide fight against doping: From the beginning to the World Anti‐Doping Agency. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 39: 1–9.
• Kaufman, M. J., Janes, A. C., Hudson, J. I., Brennan, B. P., Kanayama, G., Kerrigan, A. R., Jensen, J. E., & Pope, H. G. (2015). Brain and cognition abnormalities in long‐term anabolic‐androgenic steroid users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 152, 47–56.
• Lejoyeux, M., Avril, M., Richoux, C., Embouazza, H., & Nivoli, F. (2008). Prevalence of exercise dependence and other behavioral addictions among clients of a Parisian fitness room. Comprehensive psychiatry, 49(4), 353-358.
• Marks, I., & Mishan, J. (1988). Dysmorphophobic avoidance with disturbed bodily perception: A pilot study of exposure therapy. The British journal of psychiatry, 152(5), 674-678.
• Maughan, R. J., King, D. S., & Lea, T. (2004). Dietary supplements. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(1), 95–113.
• Mazzoni, I., Barroso, O., & Rabin, O. (2017). Anti-doping challenges with novel psychoactive substances in sport. Novel Psychoactive Substances: Policy, Economics and Drug Regulation, 43-56.
• McHenry, J., Carrier, N., Hull, E., & Kabbaj, M. (2014). Sex differences in anxiety and depression: Role of testosterone. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35, 42–57.
• McKay, D. (1999). Two-year follow-up of behavioral treatment and maintenance for body dysmorphic disorder. Behavior modification, 23(4), 620-629.
• Molinero, O., & Márquez, S. (2009). Use of nutritional supplements in sports: risks, knowledge, and behavioural‐related factors. Nutr Hosp, 24(2), 128–134.
• Mooney, R., Simonato, P., Ruparelia, R., Roman‐Urrestarazu, A., Martinotti, G., & Corazza, O. (2017). The use of supplements and performance and image enhancing drugs in fitness settings: A exploratory cross‐sectional investigation in the United Kingdom. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 32(3), e2619.
• Morrison, L. J., Gizis, F., & Shorter, B. (2004). Prevalent use of dietary sup- plements among people who exercise at a commercial gym. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 14(4), 481–492.
• Mosley, P. E. (2009). Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review: The Professional Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 17(3), 191-198.
• Murray, S. B., Maguire, S., Russell, J., & Touyz, S. W. (2012). The emotional regulatory features of bulimic episodes and compulsive exercise in muscle dysmorphia: A case report. European Eating Disorders Review, 20(1), 68-73.
• Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Touyz, S. W., & De la Garza García, Lic, Y. (2010). Muscle dysmorphia and the DSM‐V conundrum: Where does it belong? A review paper. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43(6), 483-491.
• Nackeeran, S., Patel, M. S., Nallakumar, D. T., Ory, J., Kohn, T., Deibert, C. M., Carto, C., & Ramasamy, R. (2022). Testosterone therapy is associated with depression, suicidality, and intentional self‐harm: Analysis of a national federated database. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 19, 933–939.
• Nead, K. T. (2019). Androgens and depression: A review and update. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity, 26, 175–179.
• Neziroglu, F. A., & Yaryura-Tobias, J. A. (1993). Body dysmorphic disorder: phenomenology and case descriptions. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 21(1), 27-36.
• Olivardia, R., Pope Jr, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: A case-control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1291-1296.
• Olivardia, R. (2007). Muscle Dysmorphia: Characteristics, Assessment, and Treatment. Pope Jr, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. A. (1997). Muscle dysmorphia: An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics, 38(6), 548-557.
• Pope Jr, H. G., Katz, D. L., & Hudson, J. I. (1993). Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders. Comprehensive psychiatry, 34(6), 406-409.
• Pope, H., Phillips, K. A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. Simon and Schuster.
• Pope Jr, H. G., Wood, R. I., Rogol, A., Nyberg, F., Bowers, L., & Bhasin, S. (2014). Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocrine reviews, 35(3), 341-375.
• Rasmussen, J. J., Selmer, C., Østergren, P. B., Pedersen, K. B., Schou, M., Gustafsson, F., Faber, J., Juul, A., & Kistorp, C. (2016). Former abusers of anabolic androgenic steroids exhibit decreased testoster- one levels and hypogonadal symptoms years after cessation: A case‐ control study. PLoS One, 11, e0161208.
• Ricciardelli, L. A., McCabe, M. P., & Banfield, S. (2000). Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys: Role of parents, friends and the media. Journal of psychosomatic research, 49(3), 189-197.
• Sagoe, D., McVeigh, J., Bjørnebekk, A., Essilfie, M. S., Andreassen, C. S., & Pallesen, S. (2015). Polypharmacy among anabolic‐androgenic steroid users: A descriptive metasynthesis. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 10, 12.
• Sell, A., Lukazsweski, A. W., & Townsley, M. (2017). Cues of upper body strength account for most of the variance in men's bodily attractiveness [Internet]. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Science, 284(1869), 20171819.
• Shepherd, C. (2001). Pacing and exercise in chronic fatigue syndrome. Physiotherapy, 87(8), 395-396.
• Smit, D. L., Buijs, M. M., Hon, O., Heijer, M., & Ronde, W. (2021). Positive and negative side effects of androgen abuse. The HAARLEM study: A one‐year prospective cohort study in 100 men. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 31, 427–438.
• Sussman, S., Lisha, N., & Griffiths, M. (2011). Prevalence of the addictions: a problem of the majority or the minority?. Evaluation & the health professions, 34(1), 3-56.
• Szabo, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). Exercise addiction in British sport science students. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5, 25-28.
• Szabo, A. (2010). Addiction to Exercise: A Symptom Or a Disorder?. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated.
• Thevis, M., Schrader, Y., Thomas, A., Sigmund, G., Geyer, H., & Schänzer, W. (2008). Analysis of confiscated black market drugs using chromatographic and mass spectrometric approaches. Journal of analytical toxicology, 32(3), 232-240.
• Thome, J. L., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Obligatory exercise and eating pathology in college females: Replication and development of a structural model. Eating Behaviors, 8(3), 334-349.
• Veale, D., Gournay, K., Dryden, W., Boocock, A., Shah, F., Willson, R., & Walburn, J. (1996). Body dysmorphic disorder: a cognitive behavioural model and pilot randomised controlled trial. Behaviour research and therapy, 34(9), 717-729.
• Verroken, M. (2000). Drug use and abuse in sport. Baillières Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 14:1–23.
• Chen, W. J. (2016). Frequent exercise: A healthy habit or a behavioral addiction?. chronic diseases and translational medicine, 2(04), 235-240.
• Walsh, B. T. (2007). DSM‐V from the perspective of the DSM‐IV experience. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(S3), S3-S7.
• Wilhelm, S., Otto, M. W., Lohr, B., & Deckersbach, T. (1999). Cognitive behavior group therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: a case series. Behaviour research and therapy, 37(1), 71-75.
• Windfeld‐Mathiasen, J., Christoffersen, T., Strand, N. A. W., Dalhoff, K., Andersen, J. T., & Horwitz, H. (2022). Psychiatric morbidity among men using anabolic steroids. Depression and anxiety, 39(12), 805-812.
• World Anti‐Doping Agency. (2016). Therapeutic use exemption guidelines. Retrieved from https://wada‐main‐prod.s3.amazonaws.com/ resources/files/wada‐tue‐guidelines‐v8.0‐en.pdf
• WorldHealthOrganization(WHO).PhysicalActivity.http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs385/en/. Accessed November 20, 2016.