Nysa Antik Kenti Cam Örneklerinde Arkeometrik İncelemeler

Year 2024, , 243 - 269, 30.09.2024

Emine Torgan Güzel , Ali Akın Akyol , Rahşan Polat

https://doi.org/10.56170/propontica.1521384

Abstract

Batı Anadolu’da bulunan ve Aydın ilinin Sultanhisar ilçesi yakınında yer alan Nysa antik kenti kazı çalışmalarında ele geçen cam buluntuların kimyasal içeriklerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla arkeometrik incelemeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Anadolu’da cam üretimi ve teknolojisi ile ilgili çalışmalar oldukça sınırlıdır. Anadolu coğrafyasında bulunan cam örneklerin tarihçesi, durumu, üretim teknolojisi ve kimyasal kompozisyonunun belirlenebilmesi için örneklerin çeşitli analitik yöntem ve teknikler kullanılarak bilimsel olarak incelenmesi gereklidir. Bu çalışmada, cam buluntuların öncelikle fiziksel durumları incelenmiş, kalınlıkları belirlenmiş, renkleri kromametrik olarak tanımlanmış ve fotoğraflanarak belgelenmiştir. Örnekler, polarize edilmiş enerji dağılımlı X-ışını spektrometresi (PED-XRF) ve enerji dağılımlı X- ışını taramalı elektron mikroskobu (SEM-EDX) kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Böylece örneklerin yapı ve kimyasal kompozisyonları tanımlanmıştır. Cam örneklerin üretim teknolojileri hakkında bilgiler için SEM ile dokuz ayrı cam örnek yüzeyinden farklı büyüklüklerde görüntüler elde edilmiştir. Bu görüntülerden cam örneklerin serbest üfleme, silindir üfleme ya da döküm teknikleri ile üretildiği belirlenmiştir. Kimyasal içerikleri olarak her iki analizde de düşük oranda SiO2 belirlenmesine rağmen camların tipik bir silis-soda-kireç camı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Aynı zamanda ergitici madde olarak sodaca zengin minerallerin (natron, sodyum karbonat, vb.) kullanıldığı saptanmış ve camların üretiminde aynı hammaddenin kullanılmış olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, analiz edilen cam örneklerine renk veren maddenin Fe2+ ve Cu2+ iyonları olduğu saptanmıştır.

Keywords

Nysa antik camları, Arkeometri, Karakterizasyon, PED-XRF, SEM-EDX.

Thanks

Yazarlar T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı’na, Aydın Müze Müdürlüğü’ne ve Nysa kazı başkanı Prof. Dr. Serdar Hakan Öztaner’e teşekkürü bir borç bilirler. Aynı zamanda, SEM-EDX analizlerinin gerçekleştirildiği Turkish Cultural Foundation (TCF)-DATU Laboratuvarı’na alt yapı desteği için teşekkür ederler.

Archaeometric Examinations of Glass Samples from Nysa Ancient City

Abstract

Archaeometric examinations were carried out to determine the chemical contents of the glass finds recovered during the excavations of the ancient city of Nysa, located near the Sultanhisar district of Aydın province in Western Anatolia.
In this study, the physical conditions of the glass samples were first examined, their thicknesses were determined, and their colors were defined chromametrically and documented by photography. The samples were examined using polarized energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (PED-XRF) and energy-dispersive X-ray scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDX), thus identifying the structure and chemical composition of the samples. To obtain information about the production technologies of glass samples, images of different sizes were obtained from nine glass sample surfaces with SEM. From these images, it was determined that the glass samples were produced by free-blowing, cylinder-blowing or mold-blowing techniques. Although low amounts of SiO2 were determined in both analysis methods, the glasses were determined to be a typical silica-soda-lime glass. At the same time, it was determined that soda-rich minerals (natron, sodium carbonate, etc.) were used as fluxes and the same raw material was used in the production of glasses. In addition, it was determined that the substance that gave color to the analyzed glass samples was Fe2+ and Cu2+ ions.

Keywords

Nysa ancient glasses, Archaeometry, Characterization, PED-XRF, SEM-EDX.

References

• Aerts et al. 1999, Aerts, A.–Janssens, K.–Adams, F.–Wouters, H., “Trace-Level Microanalysis of Roman Glass from Khirbet, Qumrân, Israel”, Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 883–891.
• Akyol et al. 2009, Akyol, A.A.–Güray, Ç.G.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K.–Demirci, Ş., “Elaiussa-Sebaste Cam Örnekleri Arkeometrik Çalışmaları”, 24. Archaeometry Results Meeting, T.R. Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publication Nr: 3173 / General Directorate of Cultural Properties and Museums Publications Nr: 132, Ankara, 13-28.
• Akyol et al. 2012, Akyol, A.A.–Demirci, Ş.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K.–Özgümüş, Ü., “İstanbul Yeni Cami Hünkar Kasrı Camları Üzerine Arkeometrik Çalışmalar”, II. ODTÜ Arkeometri Çalıştayı– Türkiye Arkeolojisi’nde Cam: Arkeolojik ve Arkeometrik Çalışmalar Bildiri Kitabı (6-8 Ekim 2011). Ankara, 2012, 159-171.
• Akyol et al. 2014, Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K.–Özgümüş, Ü.–Kanyak, S., “İstanbul Koca Ragıb Paşa Kütüphanesi Camları Arkeometrik Analizleri”, Journal of Turkish Studies 9, 10, 5-17.
• Akyol–Kadıoğlu 2015, Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K., “Tekfur Sarayı Cam Buluntuları Arkeometrik Çalışmaları”, Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi Kültür Envanteri Dergisi (TÜBA-KED), 13, 27-36.
• Akyol–Erten 2016, Akyol, A.A.–Erten, A.E., “Archaeometrical Studies of Ancient Window Glass Finds From Olba (Silifke, Mersin) Excavation in Turkey”, (eds. B. Stanislawski–H. Öniz), SOMA 2014, British Archaeological Reports, Archaeopress, 31-39.
• Akyol–Kadıoğlu 2017, Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K., “The Archaeometrical Analyses of Byzantine Glass Mosaic Tesserae From Three Different Sites in Turkey”, The Conservation and Presentation of Mosaics: At What Cost?, 12th Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics, 27-31 October 2014, Sardinia, Italy (eds. J. M. Teutonico–L. Friedman, A. Ben Abed–R. Nardi), The Getty Conservation Institute Publications, Hong Kong, 342-345.
• Akyol–Kadıoğlu 2021, Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K., “İstanbul Yenikapı Marmaray Cam Buluntularında Arkeometrik Analizler”, International Archaeology, Art, History and Cultural Heritage Congress, November 13-14, 2021, Adana, The Proceeding Book (eds. M. A. Akkaya–K. Beşaltı), İKSAD Publications, Adıyaman, 59-78.
• Akyol et al. 2021, Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K.–Erol, A.F., “Cıngırt Kayası (Fatsa, Ordu) Erken Bizans Dönemi Camlarında XRF Analizi”, Arkeolojik Küçük Buluntular Pişmiş Toprak, Metal, Kemik, Cam ve Taş Eserler (ed. O. Dumankaya), 404-436.
• Akyol–Koçak 2024, Akyol, A.A.–Akkuş Koçak, E., “Metropolis Aşağı Hamam-Palaestra ve Balneum Kazılarına Ait Pencere Camı Örneklerinde Arkeometrik Analizler”, Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 23, 1, 1-14.
• Arletti et al. 2006, Arletti, R.–Dalconi, M.C.–Quartieri, S.–Triscari, M.–Vezzalini, G., “Roman Coloured and Opaque Glass: A Chemical and Spectroscopic Study”, Applied Physics A 83, 239-245.
• Aydın et al. 2015, Aydın, M.–Akyol, A.A.–Erten, E.–Torgan, E., “Olba Kazısı Camları Arkeometrik Çalışmaları”, Selevcia Ad Calycadnvm, Olba Kazısı Yayınları, V-2015, 207-220.
• Bakırer 1985, Bakırer, Ö., “Cam Buluntularının Değerlendirilmesinde Arkeometrik Araştırmaların Önemi”, VII Kazı Sonuçları, I. Arkeometri Toplantısı Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara, 61-67.
• Bamford 1962, Bamford, C.R., “The Application of the Field Theory to Colored Glasses”, Physics and Chemistry of Glasses 3, 189-202.
• Baykan 2014, Baykan, C., Toprak Altı Cam Buluntuların Koruma ve Onarımı, İstanbul. Beşer et al. 2010, Beşer, E.–Uzun, A.–Demirci, Ş.–Akyol, A.A.–Kadıoğlu, Y.K., “Archaeometry of the Glass from Alanya, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterranean”, (ed. E. Laflı), 213-233.
• Brems–Degryse 2014, Brems, D.D.–Degryse, P.P., “Trace Element Analysis in Provenancing Roman Glassmaking”, Archaeometry 56, 1, 116–136.
• Brill 1988, Brill, R. H., “Scientific Investigations of the Jalame Glass and Related Finds” Excavations at Jalame: Site of a Glass Factory in late Roman Palestine, 257-294.
• Büyüksoy 2020, Büyüksoy, D.Ç., Enez (Ainos) Kazısı Su Terazisi ve Kral Kızı Bölgelerinde Ele Geçen Camların Bozulmaları Üzerine Arkeometrik Çalışmalar, (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Büyüksoy et al. 2021, Büyüksoy, D.Ç.–Akyol, A.A.–Kocabaş, I.Ö., “Archaeometric Studies on the Characterization and Deteriorations of Glass Artifacts of Su Terazisi and Kral Kızı Regions in Enez (Ainos) Excavation”, Art-Sanat, 16, 87-122.
• Büyüksoy et al. 2023, Çolak Büyüksoy, D.–Akyol, A.A.–Özsait Kocabaş, I., “Enez (Ainos) Camlarının Bozulmaları Üzerine Arkeometrik Değerlendirmeler”, Enez Kitabı (eds. H. Kayıcı–E. Ünsal), 513-562.
• Davison 2003, Davison, S., Conservation and Restoration of Glass (2nd ed.). Oxford. Degryse–Schneider 2008, Degryse, P.–Schneider, J., “Pliny the Elder and Sr-Nd Isotopes: Tracing the Provenance of Raw Materials for Roman Glass Production”, Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 7, 1993-2000.
• Diler–Öztaner 2021, Diler, M.–Öztaner, S.H., “Nysa Antik Kenti Kazıları Konservasyon-Restorasyon Çalışmaları”, Asbider (Akademi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi) 8, 22, 183-203.
• Gratuze–Janssens 2004, Gratuze, B.–Janssens, K., “Provenance Analysis of Glass Artefacts”, Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry Volume XLII: NonDestructive Microanalysis of Cultural Heritage Materials, (eds. K. Janssens– R.V. Grieken), Amsterdam.
• Fermo et al. 2016, Fermo, P.–Andreoli, M.–Bonizzoni, L.–Fantauzzi, G.–Giubertoni, G.–Ludwing, N.–Rossi, A., “Characterisation of Roman and Byzantine Glasses from Surrondings of Thugga (Tunisia): Raw Material and Colours”, Microchemical Journal 129, 5-15.
• Foster–Jackson 2009, Foster, H.E.–Jackson, C.M., “The Composition of Naturally Coloured Late Roman Vessel Glass from Britain and the Implications for Models of Glass Production and Supply”, Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 189– 204.
• Freestone et al. 2000, Freestone, I.C.–Gorin Rosen, Y.–Hughes, M.J., “Primary Glass from Israel and the Production of Glass in Late Antiquity and in the Early Islamic Period, La route du verre: ateliers primaires et secondaires du second millénaire av. J.C. au Moyen Âge, Travaux de la Maison de l‟Orient Méditerranéen, (ed. M.D. Nenna), Lyon, 33, 65-83.
• Freestone et al. 2002, Freestone, I.C.–Ponting, M.–Hughes, J., “The Origins of Byzantine Glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus”, Archaeometry 44, 257-272.
• Freestone 2003, Freestone, I.C., “Primary Glass Sources in the Mid First Millennium A.D.”, Annales du 15e Congres de l’Association Internationale pour l’historie du Verre, 111-115.
• Freestone et al. 2003, Freestone, I.C.–Leslie, K. A.–Thirlwall, M.–Gorin-Rosen, Y., “Strontium Isotopes in the Investigation of Early Glass Production: Byzantine and Early Islamic Glass from the Near East”, Archaeometry 45, 1, 19-32.
• Freestone 2006, Freestone I.C., “Glass Production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period: A Geochemical Perspective”, Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage, (eds. M. Maggetti–B. Messiga), London: Geological Society Special Publications 257, London, 201– 216.
• Freestone 2009, Freestone, I.C., “Pliny on Roman Glassmaking”, Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Materials, (eds. M. Martinon-Torres–T. Rehren), California: Left Coast Press.
• Ganio et al. 2012, Ganio, M.–Boyen, S.–Brems, D.–Scott, R.–Foy, D.–Latruwe, K.–Molin, G.–Silvestri, A.–Vanhaecke, F.–Degryse, P., “Trade Routes Across the Mediterranean: A Sr/Nd Isotopic Investigation on Roman Colourless Glass”, Glass Technology: European Journal of Glass Science and Technology Part A 53, 5, 217–224.
• Goffer 2007, Goffer, Z., Archaeological Chemistry, New Jersey.
• Gueli et al. 2020, Gueli, A.–Pasquale, S.–Tanasi, D.–Hassam, S.–Lemasson, Q.–Moignard, B.–Pacheco, C.–Pichon, L.–Stella, G.–Politi, G., “Weathering and Deterioration of Archeological Glasses from Late Roman Sicily”, International Journal of Applied Glass Scence 11, 215–225.
• Henderson 2000, Henderson, J., The Science and Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of Inorganic Materials, London.
• Henderson et al. 2010, Henderson, J.–Evans, J.–Nikita, K., “Isotopic Evidence for the Production, Provenance and Trade of Late Bronze Age Glass in the Mediterranean”, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 10, 1, 1-25.
• Henderson 2013, Henderson, J., Ancient Glass and An Interdisciplinary Exploration, Cambridge University Press, 320-325.
• Huisman et al. 2009, Huisman, D.J.–De Groot, T.–Pols, S.–Van Os, B.J.H.–Degryse, P., “Compositional Variation in Roman Colourless Glass Objects from the Bochotz Burial (The Netherlands)”, Archaeometry 51, 3, 413-439.
• İdil–Kadıoğlu 2009, İdil V.–Kadıoğlu, M., “2007 Yılı Nysa Kazı ve Restorasyon Çalışmaları”, 30, Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 3, 499-520.
• İdil et al. 2010, İdil, V.–Kadıoğlu, M.–Beckmann, M.–Özbil Serin, C.–Tamsü Polat, R., “2008 Yılı Nysa Kazı ve Restorasyon Çalışmaları”, 31. Kazı Sonuçları toplantısı, 2, 271-296.
• Jackson 2005, Jackson, C.M., “Making Colourless Glass in the Roman Period”, Archaeometry 47, 763–80.
• Jackson–Cottam 2015, Jackson, C.M.–Cottam, S., “A Green Thought in a Green Shade: Compositional and Typological Observations Concerning the Production of Emerald Green Glass Vessels in the 1st Century A.D.”, Journal of Archaeological Science 61, 139–48.
• Jackson–Paynter 2016, Jackson, C.M.–Paynter, S., “A Great Big Melting Pot: Exploring Patterns of Glass Supply, Consumption and Recycling in Roman Coppergate, York”, Archaeometry 58, 1, 68-95.
• Jackson et al. 2016, Jackson, C.M.–Paynter, S.–Nenna, M.–Degryse, P., “Glassmaking Using Natron from el-Barnugi (Egypt); Pliny and the Roman Glass Industry”, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 10, 1179-1191.
• Janssens 2004, Janssens, K., “X-Ray Based Methods of Analysis”, Comprehensive Analytical Chemisty. Volume XLII: Non-Destructive Microanalysis of Cultural Heritage Materials, (eds. K. Janssens–R.V. Grieken), Amsterdam.
• Johnson et al. 1999, Johnson, D.M.–Hooper, P.R.–Conrey, R.M., “XRF Analysis of Rocks and Minerals for Major and Trace Elements on a Single Low Dilution Li-tetraborate Fused Bead”, Advances in X-ray Analysis 41, 843-867.
• Kadıoğlu 2011, Kadıoğlu, M., “Vorbericht über die Arbeiten im Gerontikon von Nysa am Mäander 2006-2009”, JDL 126, 107-154.
• Kadıoğlu 2014, Kadıoğlu, M., Das Gerontikon von Nysa am Mӓander, Forschungen in Nysa am Mӓander, Band 3, Darmstadt.
• Kadikova et al. 2017, Kadikova, I.–Morozova, E.–Yuryeva T.V.–Grigorieva, I.A., “Study of Deteriorating Turquoise Lead- Potassium Glass Beads at Different Stages of Corrosion Using Micro-FTIR Spectroscopy”, Submitted to Materials Today: Proceedings, 1-7.
• Knappet et al. 2011, Knappet, C.–Pirrie, D.–Power, M.R.,–Nikolakopoulou, I.–Hilditch, J.–Rollinson, G.K., “Mineralogical Analysis and Provenancing of Ancient Ceramics Using Automated SEM–EDS Analysis”, Thera. J. Archaeol. Science 38, 2, 219–232.
• Kramar 1999, Kramar, U., “X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometers”, Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry, 2467- 2477.
• Kursula 2000, Kursula, P.K., “Accuracy, Precision and Detection Limits of SEM-WDS, SEM-EDS and PIXE in the Multi-Elemental Analysis of Medieval Glass”, X-ray Spectrometry 29, 111-118.
• La Tour 1989, La Tour, T.E., “Analysis of Rocks Using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry”, The Rigaku Journal 6, 1, 3-9. Lambert 1997, Lambert, J., Traces of the Past; Unravelling the Secrets of Archaeology through Chemistry, Cambridge.
• Lipták 2003, Lipták, B.G., “Elemental Monitors”, Instrument Engineers’ Handbook, Process Measurement and Analysis, Volume 1, 133 London, New York, Washinghton, 1344- 1346.
• Luckner 1994, Luckner, K.T., “Ancient Glass”, Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 20, 1, 78-91.
• Mantler–Schreiner 2000, Mantler, M.–Schreiner, S., “X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry in Art and Archaeology”, X‐Ray Spectrometry 29, 1, 3-17.
• Nenna 2014, Nenna, M.D., “Egyptian Glass Abroad, HIMT Glass and its Markets”, Neighbours and Successors of Rome: Traditions of Glass Production and use in Europe and the Middle East in the Later First Millennium AD, (eds. D.D. Keller–J.J. Price–C.C. Jackson), Oxford & Philadelphia, 177–193.
• Ohno 2007, Ohno, Y., “Spectral Color Measurement”, Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System, (ed. J. Schanda), Bölüm 5, New York, 101-132.
• Öztaner 2018, Öztaner, S.H., “Nysa Antik Kenti Şehir Planlaması”, II. International Congress of Urban Environment Health, Nevşehir, 923-929.
• Öztaner 2022, Öztaner, S.H., “Büyük Menderes Vadisinin Çift Yakalı Kenti: Nysa ad Maeandrum”, Lycus Dergisi, 6, 225-250.
• Palomar et al. 2020, Palomar, T.–Mosa, J.–Aparicio, M., “Hydrolytic Resistance of K2O-PbO-SiO2 Glasses in Aqueous and High-Humidity Environments”, Journal of the American Ceramic Society 103, 9, 5248-5258.
• Paynter 2006, Paynter, S., “Analyses of Colourless Roman Glass from Binchester, County Durham”, Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 1037-1057.
• Pollard–Heron 1996, Pollard, A.M.–Heron, C., Archaeological Chemistry, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. Pollard–Heron 2008, Pollard, A.M.–Heron, C., Archaeological Chemistry in Archaeology., Cambridge.
• Rasmussen 2012, Rasmussen, S.C., How Glass Change the World–the History and Chemistry of Glass from Antiquity to the 13th Century, USA.
• Renfrew–Bahn 2004, Renfrew, C.–Bahn, P., Archaeology Theories, Methods and Practice, London. Sayre–Smith 1961, Sayre, E.V.–Smith, R.W., “Compositional Categories of Ancient Glass”, Science 133, 3467, 1824-1826.
• Schibille et al. 2017, Schibille N.N.–Sterrett-Krause, A.A.–Freestone, I.C., “Glass Groups, Glass Supply and Recycling in Late Roman Carthage”, Archaeological and Anthropological Science 9, 1223–1241.
• Shackley 2011, Shackley, M.S., X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) in Geoarchaeology. Shortland–Eremin 2006, Shortland, A.J.–Eremin, K., “The Analysis of Second Millennium Glass from Egypt and Mesopotamia”, Part 1: New WDS Analyses, Archaeometry 48, 581-603.
• Shortland 2012, Shortland, A.J., Lapis Lazuli from the Kiln: Glass and Glassmaking in the Late Bronze Age, Leuven: Leuven University Press.
• Silvestri et al. 2005, Silvestri, A.–Molin, G.–Salviulo, G., “Roman and Medieval Glass from the Italian Area: Bulk Characterisation and Relationships with Production Technology”, Archaeometry 47, 797-816.
• Silvestri et al. 2008, Silvestri, A.–Molin, G.–Salviulo, G.–Schievenin, R., “The Colourless Glass of Iulia Felix”, Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 331-341.
• Silvestri et al. 2018, Silvestri, A.–Gallo, F.–Maltoni, S.–Degryse, P.–Ganio, M.–Longinelli, A.–Molin, G., “Things that Travelled: A Review of the Roman Glass from Northern Adriatic”, Things that travelled. Mediterranean Glass in the First Millennium AD, (eds. D. Rosenow–M. Phelps–A. Meek–I.C. Freestone), London, 346-367.
• Stephens–Calder 2004, Stephens, W.E.–Calder, A., “Analysis of Non-Organic Elements in Plant Foliage Using Polarised X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry”, Analitica Chimica Acta 527, 89-96.
• Stuart 2007, Stuart, B., “Analytical Techniques in Material Conservation”, Chichester. Tait 1991, Tait, H., Five Thousand Years of Glass, London.
• Verità et al. 2002, Verità, M.–Renier, A.–Zecchin, S., “Chemical Analyses of Ancient Glass Findings Excavated in the Venetian Lagoon”, Journal of Cultural Heritage 3, 261–271.
• Verità 2004, Verità, M., “Natura e tecnologia dei vetri pompeiani attraverso le analisi chimiche dei reperti”, Vetro Fra Arte e Scienza Nel Mondo Romano, (eds. M. Beretta–G. Di Pasquale), Prato, 163-167.
• Wagner et al. 2008, Wagner, B.–Nowak, A.–Bulska, E.–Kunickigoldfinger, J.–Schalm, O.–Janssens, K., “Complementary Analysis of Historical Glass by Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry”, Microchimica Acta 162, 3-4, 415-424.
• Wedepohl–Baumann 2000, Wedepohl, K.H.–Baumann, A., “The Use of Marine Molluskan Shells for Roman Glass and Local Raw Glass Production in Eifel Area (Western Germany)”, Naturwissenschafen 87, 129-132.
• Whitehouse 2012, Whitehouse, D., Glass: A Short History, Washington. Wight 2011, Wight, K., Molten Color Glassmaking in Antiquity, Los Angeles.
• Wilson–Pollard 2005, Wilson, L.–Pollard, A.M., “The Provenance Hypothesis”, Handbook of Archaeological Sciences, (ed. A.M. Pollard), West Sussex.
• Online Kaynaklar https://www.haberlerturkiye.com.tr/turkiye-haritasi-siyasi-renkli-turkiye-nin-illeri-haritasi-sehir-isimleri-listesi/ 37267/ Accessed 06 September 2023. http://nysa.ankara.edu.tr/agora/ Accessed 06 July 2023.
• https://www.blabmarket.com/blog/icerik/renk-olcumu-nedir-kolorimetre-nasil-calisir?srsltid=AfmBOoq0Wo-%20ZOxQJLCEV9ImiE819ZY6QKtJ2dEJyBQ6BYFdPIpkewKE-b%20Accessed%2004%20September%202024.