Turkish Adaptation of Stadium Atmosphere Scale: A Comparison of Football Spectators and Fans

Year 2024, Volume: 15 Issue: 1, 33 - 58, 29.04.2024

İsmail Aydın , Buğra Akay , Fatih Yaşartürk

https://doi.org/10.54141/psbd.1406176

Abstract

This study aimed to test the Turkish adaptation of the Stadium Atmosphere Scale (STAS) and reveal its psychometric properties. We collected data from 324 football spectators and fans, which were selected using the convenience sampling method. We carried out four different tests for Turkish adaptation and psychometric properties of the scale after performing Turkish language co-validation. The CFA analysis with varying configurations of the model revealed that the construct of the STAS fit well in both the correlated factor model and the hierarchical model and best fit the data collected from the Turkish population. Additionally, we tested measurement and structural invariance to examine if the scale was also performed for spectators participating for different purposes in the same way and determined that the relevant scale preserved its basic structure in both football spectators and fans and that the scale could be used as an appropriate measurement tool. These results demonstrated that the STAS would be used as a valid and reliable measurement tool for the population in Turkey.

Keywords

Football Fan, Reliability, Stadium Atmosphere, Spectator, Validity

References

• Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988) Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
• Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. A. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20-29. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4278999
• Babin, B. J., & Attaway, J. S. (2000). Atmospheric affect as a tool for creating value and gaining share of customer. Journal of Business Research, 49(2), 91-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00011-9
• Babin, B. J., & Darden, W. R. (1996). Good and bad shopping vibes: Spending and patronage satisfaction. Journal of business research, 35(3), 201-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(95)00125-5
• Bagozzi, R. P. & Phillips, L. (1982). Representing and testing organizational theories: A holistic construal. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27(3), 459-489. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392322
• Bagozzi, R. P. & Yi, Y. (1988) On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327
• Baker, J., Grewal, D., & Parasuraman, A. (1994). The influence of store environment on quality inferences and store image. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 22(4), 328-339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070394224002
• Balaji, M. S., & Chakraborti, R. (2015). Stadium atmosphere: Scale development and validation in Indian context. Journal of Indian Business Research, 7(1), 45-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIBR-05-2014-0029
• Bauer, H.H., Sauer, N.E., & Exler, S. (2005). The loyalty of German soccer fans: Does a team’s brand image matter?. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 7(1), 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-07-01-2005-B004
• Biscaia, R., Correia, A., Rosado, A., Yoshida, M., & Maroco, J. (2013). The role of service quality and ticket pricing on satisfaction and behavioral intentions within the professional football context. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 14(4), 42-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-14-04-2013-B004
• Byrne, B. M. (2009) Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
• Chen, C. Y., Lin, Y. H., & Chiu, H. T. (2013). Development and psychometric evaluation of sport stadium atmosphere scale in spectator sport events. European Sport Management Quarterly, 13(2), 200-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2012.759602
• Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464-504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
• Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233-255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
• Cho, H., Lee, H. W., & Pyun, D. Y. (2019). The influence of stadium environment on attendance intentions in spectator sport: The moderating role of team loyalty. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 20(2), 276-290. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-04-2017-0025
• Çevik, H. (2020). The effect of stadium atmosphere on the satisfaction and behavioral intention of spectators: New Eskişehir Stadium case. Sportif Bakis: Spor ve Egitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(1), 75-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.33468/sbsebd.125
• Danes, J. E. & Mann, O. K. (1984) Unidimensional measurement and structural equation models with latent variables. Journal of Business Research, 12(3), 337-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(84)90016-X
• Decrop, A., & Derbaix, C. (2010). Pride in contemporary sport consumption: A marketing perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(5), 586-603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-009-0167-8
• Donovan, D. J., & Rossiter, J. R. (1982). Store atmosphere: An environmental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing, 58(1), 34-57.
• Donovan, R. J., Rossiter, J. R., Marcoolyn, G., & Nesdale, A. (1994). Store atmosphere and purchasing behavior. Journal of retailing, 70(3), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4359(94)90037-X
• Edensor, T. (2015). Producing atmospheres at the match: Fan cultures, commercialisation and mood management in English football. Emotion, Space and Society, 15(1), 82-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emospa.2013.12.010
• Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
• Gardner, K. J., & Qualter, P. (2011). Factor structure, measurement invariance and structural invariance of the MSCEIT V2.0. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(4), 492-496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.004
• Gençer, R. T. (2005). Perceived service quality ın professional soccer clubs’ stadiums: an investigation on Fenerbahce Sükrü Saraçoğlu Stadium. Doctoral Thesis, Institute of Health Sciences of Marmara University, İstanbul.
• George, D., & Mallery, P. (2019). IBM SPSS Statistics 25 Step by Step: A simple guide and reference. Routledge.
• Green, S. B. (1991). How many subjects does it take to do a regression analysis?. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(3), 449-510. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2603_7
• Hightower, R., Brady, M. K., & Baker, T. L. (2002). Investigating the role of the physical environment in hedonic service consumption: An exploratory study of sporting events. Journal of Business Research, 55(9), 697-707. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00211-3
• Hill, B., & Green, B. C. (2000). Repeat attendance as a function of involvement, loyalty, and the sportscape across three football contexts. Sport management review, 3(2), 145-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(00)70083-0.
• Holt, D. B. (1995). How consumers consume: A typology of consumption practices. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1086/209431
• Hu, L. & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In. R. H. Hoyle (Ed.) Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Application, (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Hu, L. & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparamterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424-453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424
• Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
• Hunter, J. E. & Gerbing, D. W. (1982) Unidimenisonal measurement, second order factor analysis, and causal models. Research in Organizational Behavior, 4, 267-320.
• Jensen, R. W., Limbu, Y., & Choi, J. J. (2016). How does the stadium atmosphere at a college football game affect behavioral intentions across gender lines? the mediating role of spectator satisfaction. International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 9(2), 41-58.
• Jones, P., Isakjee, A., Jam, C., Lorne, C., & Warren, S. (2017). Urban landscapes and the atmosphere of place: Exploring subjective experience in the study of urban form. Urban Morphology, 21(1), 29-40. https://doi.org/10.51347/jum.v21i1.4116
• Karataş, Z. (2017). Paradigm transformation in social sciences research: Rise of qualitative approach. Turkish Journal of Social Work Research, 1(1), 68-86.
• Kelley, S.W., & Turley, L.W. (2001). Consumer perceptions of service quality attributes atsporting events. Journal of Business Research, 54(2), 161-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00084-3
• Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
• Leitch, W. (2018, July 11). Nobody’s going to sports in person anymore. And no one seems to care. New York Magazine. https:// nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/07/nobodys-going-to-sports-inperson-and-no-one-seems-to-care.html
• Li, F., Harmer, P., & Acock, A. (1996) The task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire: construct equivalence and mean differences across gender. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 67(2), 228-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1996.10607949
• Madrigal, R. (2003). Investigating an evolving leisure experience: Antecedents and consequences of spectator affect during a live sporting event. Journal of Leisure Research, 35(1), 23-48. https://doi.org/10.18666/jlr-2003-v35-i1-609
• Mardia, K. V. (1970) Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57, 519-530. https://doi.org/10.2307/2334770
• Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2008). Power and sensitivity of alternative fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 568-592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568
• Mplus. (2023). Muthén & Muthén, Mplus Home Page. https://www.statmodel.com/chidiff.shtml.
• Nash, R. (2000). Contestation in modern English professional football: The independent supporters association movement. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(4), 465-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269000035004002
• Noar, S. M. (2003) The role of structural equation modeling in scale development. Structural Equation Modeling, 10(4), 622-647. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1004_8
• Norris, C. J., Gollan, J., Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). The current status of research on the structure of evaluative space. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 422-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.011
• Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. McGraw–Hill.
• Phonthanukitithaworn, C., & Sellitto, C. (2018). Perceptions of service quality at football stadiums: influence on fans’ intention to attend future games. Managing Sport and Leisure, 23(3), 204-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2018.1544850
• Ramchandani, G., Coleman, R. J., & Bingham, J. (2017). Sport participation behaviours of spectators attending major sports events and event induced attitudinal changes towards sport. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 8(2), 121-135. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-02-2016-0014
• Robinson, M., & Trail, G. T. (2005). Relationships among spectator gender, motives, points of attachment, and sport preference. Journal of Sport Management, 19(1), 58–80. https://doi. org/10.1123/jsm.19.1.58
• Rosenbaum, M. S. ve Massiah, C. (2011). An Expanded Servicescape Perspective. Journal of Service Management, 22(4), 471-490. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564231111155088
• Roychowdhury, D. (2018). A comprehensive measure of participation motivation: Examining and validating the Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale (PALMS). Journal of Human Sport & Exercise, 13(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2018.131.20
• Rubio, D. M., Berg-Werner, M. & Tebb, S. S. (2001) Using structural equation modeling to test for multidimensionality. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(4), 613-626. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0804_06
• Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243-248. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11336-009-9135-Y
• Şen, S. (2020). Mplus ile yapısal eşitlik modellemesi. Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
• Sloan, L R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In I.H. Goldstein (Ed.). Sports games and play: Social and psychological viewpoints (2 nd ed. pp. 175-240). Hillsdale, NI: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.
• Soygüden, A. (2021). Scale of reasons for participation and non-participation in the stadium: development, validity and reliability study. International Journal of Social Humanities Sciences Research, 8(72), 1609-1621. http://dx.doi.org/10.26450/jshsr.2421
• Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (1996) Using multivariate statistics. Harper Collins.
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics. Harper and Row.
• Trail, G. T., Fink, S., & Anderson, D. E. (2003). Sport spectator consumption behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12, 8-16.
• Uhrich, S., & Benkenstein, M. (2010). Sport stadium atmosphere: formative and reflective indicators for operationalizing the constructs. Journal of Sport Management, 24(2), 211-237. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.24.2.211
• Uhrich, S., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2009). Effects of atmosphere at major sports events: a perspective from environmental psychology. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 10(4), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-10-04-2009-B005
• Underwood, R., Bond, E., & Baer, R. (2001). Building service brands via social identity: Lessons from the sports marketplace. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 9(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10696679.2001.11501881
• Wakefield, K. L., Blodgett, J. G., & Sloan, H. J. (1996). Measurement and management of the sportscape. Journal of Sport Management, 10(1), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.10.1.15
• Wann, D. L., & James, J. D. (2018). Sport fans: The psychology and social impact of fandom. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429456831
• Watkins, B. A. (2014). Revisiting the social identity-brand equity model: An application to professional sports. Journal of Sport Management, 28(4), 471-480. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2013-0253
• Westerbeek, H. M., & Shilbury, D. (1999). Increasing the focus on “place” in the marketing mix for facility dependent sport services. Sport Management Review, 2(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(99)70087-2
• Węziak-Białowolska, D., Białowolski, P., & Sacco, P. L. (2019). Involvement with the arts and participation in cultural events—Does personality moderate impact on well-being? Evidence from the UK Household Panel Survey. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(3), 348. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000180
• Woratschek, H., Horbel, C., & Popp, B. (2020). Determining customer satisfaction and loyalty from a value co-creation perspective. The Service Industries Journal, 40(11-12), 777-799. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2019.1606213
• Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Seçkin Yayıncılık.
• Yoshida, M., & James, J. D. (2011). Service quality at sporting events: Is aesthetic quality a missing dimension?. Sport Management Review, 14(1), 13-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2009.06.002
• Yoshida, M., Gordon, B. S., Nakazawa, M., & Yoshioka, N. (2021). An Integrated Model for Stadium Atmosphere and Stadium Attachment: An Empirical Test in Two Baseball Stadium Contexts. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 30(2), 95-110. http://doi.org/10.32731/SMQ.302.062021.02
• Yüce, A., Katırcı, H., Aydoğdu, V., Çetin, E., & Keçeci, O. (2020). Can we take a selfie? smart selfie application in sports facilities. Turkish Studies, 15(7), 3201-3213. https://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.45299