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Ücretsiz Bakım ve Kadın Yoksulluğu İlişkisi Perspektifinde İtalya ve Almanya

Year 2022, Volume: 12 Issue: 1, 151 - 166, 29.06.2022

Burcu Çağla Ayabakan

https://doi.org/10.32331/sgd.1135398

Abstract

Kadın yoksulluğunun çeşitli nedenleri olmakla birlikte, kadın yoksulluğun ana sebebi, toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı olarak oluşan cinsiyetçi iş bölümünün bir sonucu olarak yaygın bir biçimde kadınlara yüklenen hane içi bakım sorumluluğudur. Çalışmada ilgili yazında teorik olarak varlığı kabul edilen ücretsiz bakım ve kadın yoksulluğu ilişkisi seçilen İtalya ve Almanya örnekleri üzerinden incelenmiştir. İtalya ve Almanya’nın seçilmesinin sebebi, Esping Andersen tarafından aynı ve bazı araştırmacılar tarafından farklı refah rejimi kategorilerinde sınıflandırılmalarının yanı sıra, Almanya ve İtalya’nın kendilerine özgü yapısıdır. Bu kapsamda, ülkelerin benzer bir görünüm sergileyip sergilemedikleri değerlendirilmiş, benzerlik ve farklılıkları ortaya koyulmuştur. Sonuç olarak, Almanya ve İtalya’nın birbirlerinden farklı olduğu ve İtalya’nın toplumsal cinsiyet göstergeleri bakımından Almanya’nın oldukça gerisinde kaldığı görülmüştür. Covid-19’un toplumsal cinsiyet göstergeleri bakımından her iki ülkeyi de olumsuz etkilediği fakat İtalya üzerindeki etkilerinin daha büyük olduğu anlaşılmıştır.

Keywords

Kadın yoksulluğu ücretsiz bakım toplumsal cinsiyet

References

  • Adams-Prassl, Abi, Teodora Boneva, Marta Golin and Christopher Rauh. (2020). Work Tasks That Can Be Done From Home: Evidence on the Variation Within and Across Occupations and Industries. IZA Discussion Paper. 13374.
  • Advani, A., Smith, S., & Xu, X. (4 Oct 2021). Gender Differences in Subject Choice Leads to Gender Pay Gap Immediately After Graduation. The IFS.
  • Altay, A. (2007). The Challenge for Global Women Poverty: Microfinance (or microcredit) As A Solution for Women Poverty in Turkey. In Papers of the Annual IUE-SUNY Cortland Conference in Economics. 4 21.
  • Antonopoulos, R. (May 2009). The Unpaid Care Work - Paid Work Connection. Geneva: Policy Integration and Statistics Department, International Labour Office. Working Paper No. 86.
  • Arts, W. ve J. Gelissen. (2002). Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-Art Report. Journal of European Social Policy. 12(2). 137-158.
  • Arpino, B., Pronzato, C. D. and Tavares, L. P. (2014). The Effect of Grandparental Support On Mothers Labour Market Participation: An Instrumental Variable Approach. European Journal of Population 30. 369-390.
  • Barbieri, P., Cutuli, G. and Lugo, M. (2015). The Role of Gender and Education in Early Labor Market Careers: Long-Term Trends in Italy in H.-P. Blossfeld, J. Skopek, M. Triventi and S. Buchholz (eds.). Gender, Education and Employment: An International Comparison of School-to-Work Transitions, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 142–160.
  • Becker, G. S. (1993). Human Capital: a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, With Special Reference to Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Bettio, F., & Pastore, F. (9-10 Temmuz 2017). Overvıew of Female Employment Issues in Italy. GCRF Meeting. London: Female Employment & Dynamics of Inequality Research Network. Berniell, M., and C. Sánchez- Páramo (2011). Overview of Time Use Data Used for the Analysis of Gender Differences in Time Use Patterns. Background Paper For the World Development Report 2012.
  • Boll, T., Ferring, D., & Valsiner, J. (2018). Culture in the Act of Caring-Bridging Geropsychology, Other Gerosciences, and Cultural Psychology Together. In T. Boll, D. Ferring, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Cultures of Care in Aging (pp. xiii-xx). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
  • Bonali, G. (1997). Classifying Welfare States: A Two-Dimension Approach. Journal of Social Policy. 26(3). 351-72.
  • Brimblecombe, N., Fernandez, J., Knapp, M., Rehill, A., & Wittenberg, R. (2018). Review of the International Evidence on Support for Unpaid Carers. Journal of Long-term Care. 25 – 40.
  • Dedeoğlu, S. (2004). Sindrella’nın Pazara Yolculuğu: Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rolleri, Aile ve Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı Üzerine Bir Deneme. N. Balkan, & S. Savran (Ed.) içinde, Neoliberalizmin Tahribatı: Türkiye’de Ekonomi,Toplum ve Cinsiyet. 254-274. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
  • Dotti Sani, G. M. ve Scherer, S. (2017). Maternal Employment: Enabling factors in Context. First Published. January 2017. Work, Employement and Society. 1-18.
  • Dugarova, E. (2020). Unpaid Care Work in Times of the COVID-19 Crisis: Gendered Impacts, Emerging Evidence and Promising Policy Responses. Families in Development: Focus on Modalities for IYF+30. Parenting Education and the Impact of COVID-19. UN.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (2009). Tamamlanmamış Devrim Kadınların Yeni rollerine Uymak (Çev. S.Çağatay). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1999). Social Foundations of Post-Industrial Economies, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey.
  • European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) (2020), Gender Inequalities in Care and Pay in the EU, Lithuania.
  • Eurostat (2020). European Union Labour Force Survey.
  • Federal Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens,Women and Youth. (2020). Women and Men in Germany. Berlin: Federal Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens,Women and Youth. Ferrera, M. (1996). The “Southern” Model of Welfare in Social Europe, Journal of European Social Policy. 6(1). 17-37.
  • Ferrera, Maurizio (2006). Sosyal Avrupa’da Güney Avrupa Refah Modeli. Buğra, Ayşe ve Çağlar Keyder (Ed.). Sosyal Politika Yazıları. 195-230. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Folbre, Nancy (2012). Should Women Care Less? Intrinsic Motivation and Gender Inequality. An International Journal of Employment Relations. 50(4). 597-619.
  • Fukuda Parr, S. (1999). What Does Feminization of Poverty Mean? It Isn’t Just Lack of Income. Feminist Economics. 5(2). 99-103.
  • Hook, Jennifer L. 2006. Care in Context: Men’s Unpaid Work in 20 Countries. 1965-2003. American Sociological Review.71(4). 639–60.
  • King-Dejardin, Amelita. 2019. The Social Construction of Migrant Care Work. At the Intersection of Care. Migration and Gender. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
  • Klünder, Nina (2017). Differenzierte Ermittlung des Gender Care Gap auf Basis der Repräsentativen Zeitverwendungsdaten 2012/13. Expertise für den Zweiten Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung. (https://www.gleichstellungsbericht.de/kontext/controllers/document.php/30.b/a/f83f36.pdf.)
  • Leibfried, S. (1992). Towards a European Welfare State? On Integrating Poverty Regimes in to the European Community in Z. Ferge and J. E. Kolbergs (eds.), Social Policy in a Changing Europe. Frankfurt, Campus.
  • Lightman, Naomi, & Kevins, A. (2019). Bonus or Burden? Care Work, Inequality, and Job Satisfaction in Eighteen European Countries. European Sociological Review. 35(6). 825–44. Lister, Ruth (1994). She Has Other Duties - Women, Citizenship and Social Security in S. Baldwin and J. Falkingham (eds.) Social Security and Social Change: New Challenges to the Beveridge Model. Hempel Hampstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
  • Milla Salin & Minna Ylikännö & Mia Hakovirta. (2018). How to Divide Paid Work and Unpaid Care Between Parents? Comparison of Attitudes in 22 Western Countries, Social Sciences. MDPI. 7(10). pages 1-20. October.
  • Miranda, V. (2011). Cooking, Caring and Volunteering: Unpaid Work Around the World, OECD Social. Employment and Migration Working Papers. No. 116. OECD Publishing.
  • Mutti A (2000). Particularism and the Modernization Process in Southern Italy. International Sociology 15(4). 579–590.
  • Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser (2018). Economic Inequality by Gender. Published Online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: [https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality-by-gender,online Resource].
  • OXFAM. (2020). Care in the Time of Coronavirus:Why Care Work Needs to be at the Centre of a Post COVID-19 Feminist Future. OXFAM.
  • Pailhé, Ariane, Anne Solaz, and Maria Stanfors. 2021. The Great Convergence? Gender and Unpaid Work in Europe and the United States. Population and Development Review. 47. 181–217.
  • Pickard, L., King, D., Brimblecombe, N., & Knapp, M. (2015). The Effectiveness of Paid Services in Supporting Unpaid Carers. Employment in England. Journal Social Policy. 44(3). 567–90.
  • Sayyid Salman Rizavi & Catherine Sofer, 2010. Household Division of Labor: Is there any Escape From Traditional Gender Roles? Documents de Travail du Centre d'Economie de la Sorbonne 10009. Université Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris 1), Centre d'Economie de la Sorbonne.
  • Schober PS (2014). Parental Leave and Domestic Work of Mothers and Fathers: A Longitudinal Study of Two Reforms in West Germany. Journal of Social Policy. 43.351–372.
  • UN Women. (2015-2016). Transforming Eonomies. Realiazing Rights. UN Women. UN Women ve UN Count. (2020). Whose Time To Care? Unpaid Care And Domestic Work During COVİD-19. New York: UN Women ve UN Count.
  • UNFPA and PROMUNDO (2018). Engaging Men in Unpaid Care Work: an Advocacy Brief for Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Istanbul and Washington: UNFPA and PROMUNDO.
  • Unilever and OXFAM GB. (June 2019). Business Briefing on Unpaid Care and Domestic Work. Unilever and OXFAM GB.
  • Van Hooren FJ. Varieties of Migrant Care Work: Comparing Patterns of Migrant Labour in Social Care. J Eur Soc. Policy. 2012. 22(2).133–147.
  • Wolfgang Keck & Chiara Saraceno, 2012. Multilinks Database on Intergenerational Policy Indicators, Schmollers Jahrbuch: Journal of Applied Social Science Studies / Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, vol. 132(3). pages 453-461.
  • Zusammenfassung, E. (2018). Zweiter Gleichstellungsbericht. Berlin: Zweiter Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung.

Year 2022, Volume: 12 Issue: 1, 151 - 166, 29.06.2022

Burcu Çağla Ayabakan

https://doi.org/10.32331/sgd.1135398

Abstract

References

  • Adams-Prassl, Abi, Teodora Boneva, Marta Golin and Christopher Rauh. (2020). Work Tasks That Can Be Done From Home: Evidence on the Variation Within and Across Occupations and Industries. IZA Discussion Paper. 13374.
  • Advani, A., Smith, S., & Xu, X. (4 Oct 2021). Gender Differences in Subject Choice Leads to Gender Pay Gap Immediately After Graduation. The IFS.
  • Altay, A. (2007). The Challenge for Global Women Poverty: Microfinance (or microcredit) As A Solution for Women Poverty in Turkey. In Papers of the Annual IUE-SUNY Cortland Conference in Economics. 4 21.
  • Antonopoulos, R. (May 2009). The Unpaid Care Work - Paid Work Connection. Geneva: Policy Integration and Statistics Department, International Labour Office. Working Paper No. 86.
  • Arts, W. ve J. Gelissen. (2002). Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-Art Report. Journal of European Social Policy. 12(2). 137-158.
  • Arpino, B., Pronzato, C. D. and Tavares, L. P. (2014). The Effect of Grandparental Support On Mothers Labour Market Participation: An Instrumental Variable Approach. European Journal of Population 30. 369-390.
  • Barbieri, P., Cutuli, G. and Lugo, M. (2015). The Role of Gender and Education in Early Labor Market Careers: Long-Term Trends in Italy in H.-P. Blossfeld, J. Skopek, M. Triventi and S. Buchholz (eds.). Gender, Education and Employment: An International Comparison of School-to-Work Transitions, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 142–160.
  • Becker, G. S. (1993). Human Capital: a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, With Special Reference to Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Bettio, F., & Pastore, F. (9-10 Temmuz 2017). Overvıew of Female Employment Issues in Italy. GCRF Meeting. London: Female Employment & Dynamics of Inequality Research Network. Berniell, M., and C. Sánchez- Páramo (2011). Overview of Time Use Data Used for the Analysis of Gender Differences in Time Use Patterns. Background Paper For the World Development Report 2012.
  • Boll, T., Ferring, D., & Valsiner, J. (2018). Culture in the Act of Caring-Bridging Geropsychology, Other Gerosciences, and Cultural Psychology Together. In T. Boll, D. Ferring, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Cultures of Care in Aging (pp. xiii-xx). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
  • Bonali, G. (1997). Classifying Welfare States: A Two-Dimension Approach. Journal of Social Policy. 26(3). 351-72.
  • Brimblecombe, N., Fernandez, J., Knapp, M., Rehill, A., & Wittenberg, R. (2018). Review of the International Evidence on Support for Unpaid Carers. Journal of Long-term Care. 25 – 40.
  • Dedeoğlu, S. (2004). Sindrella’nın Pazara Yolculuğu: Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rolleri, Aile ve Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı Üzerine Bir Deneme. N. Balkan, & S. Savran (Ed.) içinde, Neoliberalizmin Tahribatı: Türkiye’de Ekonomi,Toplum ve Cinsiyet. 254-274. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
  • Dotti Sani, G. M. ve Scherer, S. (2017). Maternal Employment: Enabling factors in Context. First Published. January 2017. Work, Employement and Society. 1-18.
  • Dugarova, E. (2020). Unpaid Care Work in Times of the COVID-19 Crisis: Gendered Impacts, Emerging Evidence and Promising Policy Responses. Families in Development: Focus on Modalities for IYF+30. Parenting Education and the Impact of COVID-19. UN.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (2009). Tamamlanmamış Devrim Kadınların Yeni rollerine Uymak (Çev. S.Çağatay). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1999). Social Foundations of Post-Industrial Economies, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey.
  • European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) (2020), Gender Inequalities in Care and Pay in the EU, Lithuania.
  • Eurostat (2020). European Union Labour Force Survey.
  • Federal Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens,Women and Youth. (2020). Women and Men in Germany. Berlin: Federal Minister for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens,Women and Youth. Ferrera, M. (1996). The “Southern” Model of Welfare in Social Europe, Journal of European Social Policy. 6(1). 17-37.
  • Ferrera, Maurizio (2006). Sosyal Avrupa’da Güney Avrupa Refah Modeli. Buğra, Ayşe ve Çağlar Keyder (Ed.). Sosyal Politika Yazıları. 195-230. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
  • Folbre, Nancy (2012). Should Women Care Less? Intrinsic Motivation and Gender Inequality. An International Journal of Employment Relations. 50(4). 597-619.
  • Fukuda Parr, S. (1999). What Does Feminization of Poverty Mean? It Isn’t Just Lack of Income. Feminist Economics. 5(2). 99-103.
  • Hook, Jennifer L. 2006. Care in Context: Men’s Unpaid Work in 20 Countries. 1965-2003. American Sociological Review.71(4). 639–60.
  • King-Dejardin, Amelita. 2019. The Social Construction of Migrant Care Work. At the Intersection of Care. Migration and Gender. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
  • Klünder, Nina (2017). Differenzierte Ermittlung des Gender Care Gap auf Basis der Repräsentativen Zeitverwendungsdaten 2012/13. Expertise für den Zweiten Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung. (https://www.gleichstellungsbericht.de/kontext/controllers/document.php/30.b/a/f83f36.pdf.)
  • Leibfried, S. (1992). Towards a European Welfare State? On Integrating Poverty Regimes in to the European Community in Z. Ferge and J. E. Kolbergs (eds.), Social Policy in a Changing Europe. Frankfurt, Campus.
  • Lightman, Naomi, & Kevins, A. (2019). Bonus or Burden? Care Work, Inequality, and Job Satisfaction in Eighteen European Countries. European Sociological Review. 35(6). 825–44. Lister, Ruth (1994). She Has Other Duties - Women, Citizenship and Social Security in S. Baldwin and J. Falkingham (eds.) Social Security and Social Change: New Challenges to the Beveridge Model. Hempel Hampstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
  • Milla Salin & Minna Ylikännö & Mia Hakovirta. (2018). How to Divide Paid Work and Unpaid Care Between Parents? Comparison of Attitudes in 22 Western Countries, Social Sciences. MDPI. 7(10). pages 1-20. October.
  • Miranda, V. (2011). Cooking, Caring and Volunteering: Unpaid Work Around the World, OECD Social. Employment and Migration Working Papers. No. 116. OECD Publishing.
  • Mutti A (2000). Particularism and the Modernization Process in Southern Italy. International Sociology 15(4). 579–590.
  • Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser (2018). Economic Inequality by Gender. Published Online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: [https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality-by-gender,online Resource].
  • OXFAM. (2020). Care in the Time of Coronavirus:Why Care Work Needs to be at the Centre of a Post COVID-19 Feminist Future. OXFAM.
  • Pailhé, Ariane, Anne Solaz, and Maria Stanfors. 2021. The Great Convergence? Gender and Unpaid Work in Europe and the United States. Population and Development Review. 47. 181–217.
  • Pickard, L., King, D., Brimblecombe, N., & Knapp, M. (2015). The Effectiveness of Paid Services in Supporting Unpaid Carers. Employment in England. Journal Social Policy. 44(3). 567–90.
  • Sayyid Salman Rizavi & Catherine Sofer, 2010. Household Division of Labor: Is there any Escape From Traditional Gender Roles? Documents de Travail du Centre d'Economie de la Sorbonne 10009. Université Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris 1), Centre d'Economie de la Sorbonne.
  • Schober PS (2014). Parental Leave and Domestic Work of Mothers and Fathers: A Longitudinal Study of Two Reforms in West Germany. Journal of Social Policy. 43.351–372.
  • UN Women. (2015-2016). Transforming Eonomies. Realiazing Rights. UN Women. UN Women ve UN Count. (2020). Whose Time To Care? Unpaid Care And Domestic Work During COVİD-19. New York: UN Women ve UN Count.
  • UNFPA and PROMUNDO (2018). Engaging Men in Unpaid Care Work: an Advocacy Brief for Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Istanbul and Washington: UNFPA and PROMUNDO.
  • Unilever and OXFAM GB. (June 2019). Business Briefing on Unpaid Care and Domestic Work. Unilever and OXFAM GB.
  • Van Hooren FJ. Varieties of Migrant Care Work: Comparing Patterns of Migrant Labour in Social Care. J Eur Soc. Policy. 2012. 22(2).133–147.
  • Wolfgang Keck & Chiara Saraceno, 2012. Multilinks Database on Intergenerational Policy Indicators, Schmollers Jahrbuch: Journal of Applied Social Science Studies / Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, vol. 132(3). pages 453-461.
  • Zusammenfassung, E. (2018). Zweiter Gleichstellungsbericht. Berlin: Zweiter Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung.
There are 44 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Burcu Çağla Ayabakan 0000-0003-2000-4503

Publication Date June 29, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 12 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Ayabakan, B. Ç. (2022). Ücretsiz Bakım ve Kadın Yoksulluğu İlişkisi Perspektifinde İtalya ve Almanya. Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, 12(1), 151-166. https://doi.org/10.32331/sgd.1135398
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