Glass Light Sources of Byzantine: Foresights on the Lighting of the Monumental Church of Anaia

Year 2022, Volume: 31 Issue: 2, 1017 - 1041, 31.12.2022

Tümay Hazinedar Coşkun

https://doi.org/10.29135/std.1074638

Abstract

In Byzantine religious and civil architectural structures, the light was provided by means of natural and artificial lighting devices. However, it is a known fact that, natural lighting objects are used more. Artificial lighting elements are mostly used at night and in places where natural light is insufficient. Some non-religious documents, regarding the enlightenment of religious buildings provide a little bit of information about the lighting system in churches. In this sense, it is known that churches are illuminated by lamps, candles, and light beams filtering through the window at certain times of the day, both during the day and at night. In Byzantium, window openings were initially closed with stone plates, but later, window glasses began to replace those stone plates. These glasses not only provide lighting in buildings, but also contribute to the mystical atmosphere in the space. In addition to window glasses, glass oil lamps are one of the popular lighting objects, especially in the Byzantine Period. It is possible to say that oil lamps have existed in various forms and with different lighting systems since the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods. Oil lamps can be made from ceramic, glass or metal materials. The most important factor in the frequent preference of glass lamps is that, glass does not limit the effect of light as in terracotta and metal lamps, and on the contrary, it increases the degree of illumination.
In our text, primarily for the illumination of the monumental church of Anaia, window glasses that are natural lighting objects, and oil lamps, which are artificial lighting objects, will be mentioned. Archaeological finds indicate that the monumental church of Kadıkalesi was illuminated with crown and sheet (flat) shaped window glasses. Contrary to the limited data on the frame systems of the window glass, the presence of many lead and metal fragments indicate that glass oil lamps were used in the church sheds light on the illumination of the church. As a matter of fact, lead wick holders, metal chains and various metal fragments were found together with broken glass oil lamp pieces in the places where the excavations were made. In this text, window glasses and oil lamps that are possible to belong to the Kadıkalesi monumental church are introduced. From this point of view, the monumental church of Anaia must have been illuminated by stemmed lamps with straight or knotted stem placing on polycandles with four or eight holes. In addition to the stemmed lamps, the lamps with handles that provide longer-lasting illumination are also preferred objects for lighting in the castle. Although beakers oil lamps are rare examples, the fact that they come with metal pieces shows that they carry traces of the daily life of the church. Again, according to the findings, it is thought that crown shaped glasses with a convex center were mostly used. In addition, although they are few in number, it is clear that the sheet (flat) shaped ones, which were recovered together with a few frame pieces, were also located in the church. As a result, the oil lamps and window glasses used in the illumination of the Kadıkalesi monumental church are in harmony with their contemporary examples and supporting each other with the metalwork found among the excavation finds.

Keywords

Byzantine, Kadıkalesi/Anaia Excavation, Glass, Medieval Glass, Glass Lighting Window Glass, Glass Oil Lamps

Bizans’ın Cam Işık Kaynakları: Anaia Anıtsal Kilisesinin Aydınlatmasına İlişkin Öngörüler

Abstract

Bizans dini ve sivil mimari yapılarında ışık, doğal ve yapay aydınlatma gereçleri vasıtasıyla sağlanmaktadır. Ancak yaygın biçimde doğal aydınlatmadan daha fazla yararlanıldığı bilinen bir gerçektir. Doğal ışığın yetersiz olduğu yerlerde ve geceleri yapay aydınlatma öğeleri kullanılmaktadır. Dini yapıların aydınlanmasına ilişkin günümüze ulaşan, dini nitelik taşımayan bazı belgeler, kiliselerdeki ışık düzeni hakkında az da olsa çeşitli bilgiler sunmaktadır. Bu anlamda kiliselerin hem gündüz hem de geceleri kesintisiz yanan kandillerle, mumlarla ve günün belirli saatlerinde pencereden süzülen ışın huzmeleri ile aydınlandığı bilinmektedir. Bizans’ta açıklıklar önceleri taş plakalarla kapatılırken sonrasında pencere camları levhaların yerini almaya başlamıştır. Bu camlar, yapılarda aydınlatmayı sağlamalarının yanı sıra aynı zamanda mekandaki mistik atmosfere de katkı vermektedir. Nitekim pencere camları, yapılara rastgele değil, güneş ışınlarının geliş açısına göre, belirli bir düzen dahilinde yerleştirilmektedir. Pencere camlarının yanı sıra cam kandiller özellikle Bizans Dönemi’nin popüler aydınlatma nesnelerinden biridir. Kandillerin Geç Roma ve Erken Bizans dönemlerinden itibaren çeşitli formlarda, farklı ışıklandırma sistemleri ile var olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. Cam kandillerin sıklıkla tercih edilmesindeki en önemli faktör, camın pişmiş toprak ve metal kandillerde olduğu gibi ışığın etkisini sınırlandırmaması ve bu durumun aksine aydınlatma derecesini arttırmasıdır. Makalemizde Anaia anıtsal kiliseninin aydınlatmasına yönelik öncelikle; doğal aydınlatma öğeleri olan pencere camlarına ardından yapay aydınlatma objeleri olan kandillere değinilenecektir. Kilisede bulunan pek çok pencere camına rağmen günümüze kadar gerçekleştirilen kazı çalışmaları sonucunda sadece birkaç şebeke parçasının saptanmış olması dikkati çekmektedir. Bu bağlamda Kadıkalesi anıtsal kilisesinin pencere sisteminde muhtemelen farklı bir uygulama kurgulanmış olmalıdır. Yine de arkeolojik veriler Kadıkalesi anıtsal kilisesinin daire ve levha (düz) biçimli pencere camları ile aydınlatıldığına işaret eder. Pencere şebeke sistemi ile ilgili kısıtlı verinin aksine cam kandillerin yapıda kullanıldığına dair pek çok kurşun ve metal aksam bulgunun varlığı kilisenin aydınlatma düzenine ışık tutmaktadır.

Keywords

Bizans, Pencere Camı, Cam, Orta Çağ Camları, Aydınlatma Camları, cam kandil

References

• Acara, M.- Olcay B. Y. (1998). Bizans Dönemi’nde Aydınlatma Düzeni ve Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi’nde Kullanılan Aydınlatma Gereçleri, Adalya II, 249-266.
• Akkuş, E. (2021). Metropolis Aşağı Hamam Palaestra Yapısında Pencere Camları ve Aydınlatma, Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi 100 Yaşında, Ankara, 359-370.
• Antonaras, A. (2009). Old And Recent Finds Of Byzantine Glass From Northern Greece, Journal of The Serbian Archaeological Society, 25, Belgrade, 83-107.
• Avdusina, S. (2019). Medieval Lighting Devices from the Collection of the State Historical Museum of Russia, Glass, Wax and Metal, Lighting Technologies in Late Antique, Byzantine and Medieval Times, Ed. Ioannis Motsianos and Karen S. Garnett, Oxford, 20-27.
• Bakırer, Ö. (2020). Window Glass from the Excavation in the Seljuk Palace at Alanya, Adalya, 23, İstanbul, 451- 478.
• Baur, P. V.C. (1938). Glassware, Gerasa, City of Decapolis, ed: C.H. Kraeling, Connecticut, New Heaven, 505-546.
• Beretta, M. (2004). Vetro e Visione, in Vitrum, Ed. Beretta, Di Pasquale, 121–133.
• Bitterli, T. (2019). A Light is On in the Hut. Light and Lighting Equipment in Medieval Everyday Life, Wax and Metal, Lighting Technologies in Late Antique, Byzantine and Medieval Times, Ed. Ioannis Motsianos and Karen S. Garnett, Oxford, 13-19.
• Boon, G. C. (1966). Roman Window Glass from Wales, DOP, Vol. 8, 41-45.
• Crowfoot, J. W. (1957). Glass, Samaria- Sebaste III: The Objects, London.
• Crowfoot, G. M. – Harden, D. B. (1931). Early Byzantine and Later Glass Lamps, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology,17, London, 196- 208.
• Çakmakçı, Z. (2008). Örnekler Işığında Bizans Asia’sında Cam Sanatı (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Ege Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir.
• Çömezoğlu, Ö. (2007). Akdeniz ve Çevresi Orta Çağ Camcılığı Işığında Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Cam Buluntuları, (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi), İstanbul Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Dell’Acqua, F. (2004). Le finestre invetriate nell’antichità romana, in M. Beretta (ed.), Vitrum. Il Vetro Fra Arte e Scienza Nel Mondo Romano, (exh. cat., Florence, 27 March–31 Oct 2004), Florence, 109–119.
• Dell’Acqua, F. (2005). Enhancing Luxury throuhgt Stained Glass from Asia Minor to Italy, DOP, Vol.59, 193-211.
• Dell’Acqua, F. (2006). Glass and Natural Light in the Shaping of Sacred Space in the Latin West an in the Byzantine East, Space in Byzantium and Medieveal Russia, Moscow, 299-324.
• Dodwell, C. R. (1961). Theophilus The Various Arts: De Diversis Artibus, Oxford.
• Engle, A. (1987). Light, Lamps and Windows in Antiquity, Phoenix Publications, Israel.
• Erten, E. (2003). Glass Finds from Olba Survey-2001, Olba, VII, Mersin, 145-161.
• Eyice, S. (1990). Bizans’ta ve Osmanlı Devri Türk Sanatında Aydınlatmada Cam, I. Uluslararası Anadolu Cam Sanatı Sempozyumu, İstanbul, 51-57.
• Foy, D. (2003). Le Verre en Tunisie: L’Apport des Foilles Recentes Tuniso- Françaises, JGS, 45, NewYork, 59-89.
• Foy, D.-Fontaine, S. D. (2008). Diversité et évolution du vitrage de l’ Antiquité et du haut Moyen Âge, Gallia, 65, 405-459.
• Galavaris, G. (1978). Some Aspects of Symbolic Use of Light in the Eastern Church Candles, Lamp and Ostrich Eggs, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 4, 69-78.
• Gautier, P. (1969). Le Typikon du Christ Sauveur Pantocrator , Revues des Etudes Byzantines, 27, 1-54.
• Gençler, Ç. (2009). Elaiussa Sebaste Antik Yerleşimi Cam Buluntuları, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Ankara Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Gill, M. A.V. (2006). Amorium Reports, Finds I: The Glass, 1987-1997, BAR, 1070, England 2006.
• Golofast, L. (2009). Early Byzantine Glass from the Tauric Chersonesos, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterrranean, İzmir, 301-335.
• Hadad, S. (1998). Glass Lamps from the Byzantine Through Mamluk Periods at Bet Shean, Israel, JGS, 40, NewYork, 63-76.
• Hallensleben, H. (1963-64). Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte der ehemaligen Pammakaristoskirche der heutigen FethiyeCamii in Istanbul, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, 13-14. 128-193.
• Harden, D. B. (1959). New Light on Roman and Early Medieval Window Glass, Glastechnische Berichte”, Sonderband V. Internationaler Glaskongress, Glastechnische Berichte, 32K, No. VIII, 8-16.
• Harrison, R. M.- Gill, M. A.V. (1986). The Window Glass, Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul, I. Ed: R.M. Harrison, Princeton, 204-206.
• Harrison, R.M.- Christine, N. (1993). Excavations at Amorium: 1992 Interim Report, Anatolian Studies 43, 147-162.
• Hayes, J. (1992). Excavations at Saraçhane in Istanbul, II: The Pottery, Princeton.
• Hazinedar Coşkun, T. (2013). Kuşadası, Kadıkalesi/Anaia Kazısı 2007-2010 Sezonu Cam Buluntuları “Pencere Camları”, Selevcia ad Calycadnum, 3, İstanbul, 199-212.
• Hazinedar Coşkun, T. (2017). Kuşadası Kadıkalesi/Anaia Kazısı Cam Buluntuları Yoluyla Bizans Camcılığı, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi) Ege Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir.
• Insoll, T. (1998). Islamic Glass from Gao, JGS, 40, NewYork, 77-88.
• Kanyak, S. (2009), Late Roman/Early Byzantine Window Glass from the Marmaray Rescue Excavations at Sirkeci, Istanbul, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterrranean, İzmir, 25-47.
• Kider, J.T. – Fletcher, R.L. – Yu, N. – Holod, R. – Chalmers, A. – Badler, N. I. (2009). Recreating Early Islamic Glass Lamp Lighting, The 10th International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archeology and Culturel Heritage VAST, 33-40.
• Kotzabassi, S. (2013). The Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople, Feast at the Monastery of Pantokrator, Byzantinisches Archiv, Band 27, Berlin, 153-189.
• Krizanac, M. (2009). Glass from Early Byzantine Gradina on Mount Jelica, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterranean, İzmir, 180-183.
• Lightfoot, C. S. -Ivison, E. A. (1996). Amorium Excavations 1995: The Eight Preliminary Report, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 46, Ankara, 91-110.
• Lightfoot, C. S. (1997). 1995 Yılı Amorium Kazısı, XVIII. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, Ankara, 431-447.
• Megaw, A. H. S. (1963). Notes on Recent Work of the Byzantine Institue in Istanbul, DOP, Vol. 17, 333-371.
• Mehlmann, F.(1982). Phaidon Guide to Glass, Oxford.
• Mercangöz, Z. (2010). Emporion ve Kommerkion Olarak Anaia’nın Değişken Tarihsel Yazgısı, I. Uluslararası Sevgi Gönül Sempozyumu, İstanbul, 279-292.
• Mercangöz, Z. (2013). Bizanslı Ustalar-Latin Patronlar, Ed. Z. Mercangöz, Kuşadası Yakınındaki Kadıkalesi Kazıları Işığında Anaia Ticari Üretiminden Yansımalar/Byzantine Craftsmen Latin Patrons Reflections from the Anaian Commertial Production in the Light of the Excavations at Kadikalesi nearby Kusadasi, İstanbul, 13-23.
• Meyer, C. (1988a). Glass from the North Theater Byzantine Church, and Surroundings at Jerash, Jordan Basor Supplements, 25, Jordan, 175-214.
• Meyer, C. (1988b). Byzantine and Ummayad Glass from Jerash: Battleship Curves, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, 33, Jordan, 235-244.
• Milavec, T. (2015). Late Antique Window Glass from the Hilltop Settlement of Tonovcov Grad near Kobarid, Arheološki Vestnik, 66, 79-102.
• Montserrat, D. (1995). Early Byzantine Church Lighting: A New Text, Orientalia, Nova Series, Vol. 64, No.4, 430-444.
• Motsianos, I. (2019). Lighting Devices in Byzantium: Comparions in Time and Space, Wax and Metal, Lighting Technologies in Late Antique, Byzantine and Medieval Times, Ed. Ioannis Motsianos and Karen S. Garnett, Oxford, 49-64.
• Olcay, B. Y. (1997). Antalya’nın Demre(Kale)İlçesi’ndeki Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Kazısı 1989- 1995 Yılları Cam Buluntuları, (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Hacettepe Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Olcay, B. Y. (2000). Bizans Dönemi Pencere Camları ve Kullanım Biçimleri Üzerine Bazı Bulgular, Anadolu Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 259-275.
• Olcay, B. Y. (2004). Hristiyanlıkta Işık ve Işığın Kullanımına İlişkin Anadolu’dan Bazı Bulgular, Sanat ve İnanç II, İstanbul, 53-61.
• Olcay, B. Y. (2017). Olympos Kazısı Cam Buluntuları, Olympos I 2000-2014 Araştırma Sonuçları, Ed. B. Yelda Olcay, İstanbul, 195-208.
• Olcay, B. Y. – Öztaşkın, M. (2017). Olympos Kazılarında Bulunan Aydınlatma Gereçleri, Seleucia, 7, İstanbul, 11-28.
• Ötüken, Y. (1996). 1994 Yılı Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Kazısı Çalışmaları, XVII. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı II, Ankara, 380-504.
• Özgümüş, Ü. C. (2008). Byzantine Glass Finds in the Roman Theather at İznik (Nicaea), Byzantiniche Zeitschrift, Band 101, Berlin, 727-735.
• Peleg, M. M. – Reich, R. (1992). Excavations of a Segment of the Byzantine City Wall of Caesarea Maritima, Atiqot, XXI, Jerusalem, 137-170.
• Potamianos, I.-Jabi, W. (2006). Interactive Parametric Design and the Role of Light in Byzantine Churches, eCAADe, 24, 798-803.
• Ryzhov, S. – Yashaeva, T. (2019). Church Lighting in Byzantine Cherson, Light and Lighting Equipment in Medieval Everyday Life, Wax and Metal, Lighting Technologies in Late Antique, Byzantine and Medieval Times, Ed. Ioannis Motsianos and Karen S. Garnett, Oxford, 138-148.
• Saldern, A.V. (1980). Ancient and Byzantine Glass from Sardis, London.
• Schatzschock, M. (2009). Glass From Terrace House 2 at Ephesus, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterranean, İzmir, 115-122.
• Schibille, N.-Marii, F.- Rehren, Th. (2008). Characterization and Provenance of Late Antique Window Glass from the Petra Church, Jordan, Archaeometry, 50, 627–642.
• Schwarzer, H. (2009). Spatantike, Byzantinische und Islamische Glasfunde aus Pergamon, Late Antique/Early Byzantine Glass in the Eastern Mediterranean, İzmir, 85-109.
• Schwarzer, H.(2021). Medieval Glass Vessels from Pergamon (Turkey), JGS, 63, NewYork, 57-75.
• Schwarzer, H. – Rehren, T. (2021). Glass Finds from Pergamon. A Report on the Results of Recent Archaeological and Archaometric Research, Vom Künstlichen Stein zum Durchsichtigen Massenprodukt, Innıvationen in der Glastechnik und Ihre Sozialen Folgen Zwischen Bronzezeit und Antike, Berlin Studies of the Ancient World, 67, Berlin, 161-215.
• Stern, E. M. (1985). Ancient and Medieval Glass from the Necropolis Church at Anemurium, IX. Congres de l’ Association Internationale pour l’Historie du Verre, Nancy, 35-63.
• Taylor, J.- Megaw, A. H. S. (1981). Excavations at Ayios Philon, the Ancient Carpasia, Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, 209-250.
• Trümpler, S. – Wolf, S. – Kessler, C. –Goll, J. (2012). Potential and Challenges of Interdisciplinary Research on Historical Window Glass, Stained Glass and Reverse Glass Paintings, Integrated Approaches to the Study of Historical Glass, Vol. 8422, 1- 14.
• Uysal, Z. (2013). Kubad-Abad Sarayında Selçuklu Cam Sanatı, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara.
• Weinberg, G. R. D (1940). A Medieval Glass Factory at Corinth, AJA, Boston, 297-324.
• Weinberg, G. R. D. (1952). Corinth XII, The Minor Objects, Princeton.
• Weinberg, G. R. D. (1988). Excavations at Jalame, Site of a Glass Factory in Late Roman Palestine, Columbia Missouri.