The Effects of Seafoods Consumptıon on the Immune System

Year 2022, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 130 - 137, 28.12.2022

Fahriye Umut , Şengül Bilgin , Levent İzci

https://doi.org/10.55979/tjse.1137563

Abstract

The immune system is responsible for protecting the host from threaten against pathogenic microorganisms. A well immune system provides defense against pathogenic organisms and gives resistance with food components. Malnutrition weakens the immune system and makes the individual more susceptible to infection. In nutrition, seafoods have an important in human nutrition and its contribution to the immune system due to the nutritional components it contains. Seafoods and especially fish; polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as omega-3), immunomodulatory amino acids such as melatonin, tryptophan, taurine and polyamines, fat-soluble vitamins A, D and E, water-soluble vitamins B6 and B12 and selenium, phosphorus, calcium and zinc to strengthen immunity contains important minerals. Carotenoids, which are abundant in shellfish, are important compounds in that they are precursors of vitamin A and thus participate in the body defense system. In this study were investigated the effects of seafood nutritional components on the immune system.

Keywords

: immune system, seafoods components, omega-3, aminoacids, vitamins, minerals

Su Ürünleri Tüketiminin Bağışıklık Sistemi Üzerine Etkisi

Abstract

Bağışıklık sistemi, konağı tehdit edici patojen mikroorganizmalara karşı korumakla görevlidir. İyi bir bağışıklık sistemi, patojenik organizmalara karşı savunma sağlar ve gıda bileşenlerinin de katkısıyla direnç kazandırır. Yetersiz beslenme bağışıklık sistemini zayıflatır ve bireyi enfeksiyona karşı daha duyarlı hale getirir. Beslenmede su ürünleri, içerdiği besin bileşenlerinden dolayı insan beslenmesinde ve bağışıklık sistemi üzerindeki katkısı düşünüldüğünde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Su ürünleri - özellikle balık; çoklu doymamış yağ asitleri (omega-3 gibi), melatonin, triptofan, taurin ve poliaminler gibi immün düzenleyici aminoasitleri, yağda çözünen A, D ve E vitaminlerini, suda çözünen B6 ve B12 vitaminlerini ve selenyum, fosfor, kalsiyum ve çinko gibi bağışıklığı güçlendirmek için önemli olan mineralleri içerir. Kabuklu su canlılarında bol bulunan karotenoidler A vitamininin ön maddeleleri olmaları ve bu suretle de vücut savunma sistemine katılmaları bakımından önemli bileşiklerdir. Bu çalışmada, su ürünleri besin bileşenlerinin bağışıklık sistemi üzerine etkileri incelenmiştir.

Keywords

Bağışıklık sistemi, su ürünleri bileşenleri, omega-3, aminoasitler, vitaminler, mineraller

References

• Almohanna, H. M., Ahmed, A. A., Tsatalis, J. P., & Tosti, A. (2019). The Role Of Vitamins And Minerals In Hair Loss: A Review. Dermatology and Therapy, 9(1), 51-70.
• Alpert, P. T. (2017). The role of vitamins and minerals on the ımmune system, Home Health Care Management & Practice, 29(3), 199-202. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1084822317713300
• Altun, T., Usta, F., Çelik, F., & Danabaş, D., (2004). Su Ürünlerinin İnsan Sağlığına Yararları, Türk Sucul Yaşam Dergisi, 3, 11-18.
• Arpacı, N., & Ayaz, A. (2011). Astaksantin ve Sağlık. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi, 39(1-2), 67-74.
• Augusta S., P., Nurkolis, F., Mayulu, N., Astuti Taslim, N., Silvia Wewengkang, D., Rotinsulu, H., & Rahimi Bahar, M. (2021). Seafood Product Innovation Movement: As A Student In The New Normal Era. Academia Letters, 2.
• Barta, D. G., Coman, V., & Vodnar, D. C. (2021). Microalgae as sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: biotechnological aspects. Algal Research, 58, 102410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102410.
• Baysal, A. (2014). D vitamini ve Sağlığımız. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi, 42(2), 89-90.
• Bikle, D. D. (2011). Vitamin D regulation of immune function. Vitamins & Hormones, 86, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386960-9.00001-0
• Bilgin, Ö., Maviş, M. E., & Göksu-Gürsu, G. (2020). amino acid content ın muscle tissue of the Brown Meagre, Sciaena umbra Linnaeus, 1758 (Pısces: Sciaenidae) as candidate species for aquaculture in the Black Sea, Turkey. Pakistan Journal Of Marine Sciences, 29(1), 29-38.
• Bilişli, A. (2009). Gıda Kimyası. İzmir, Sidas Yayıncılık.
• Borazjani, N. J., Tabarsa, M., You, S., & Rezaei, M. (2018). Purification, molecular properties, structural characterization, and immunomodulatory activities of water soluble polysaccharides from Sargassum angustifolium. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 109, 793-802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.11.059
• Büyükdere, Yücel., & Akyol Mutlu, Aslı. (2019). D vitamini ve enfeksiyon hastalıkları. Türkiye Klinikleri, 5(3), 39-45.
• Caesar, R., Tremaroli, V., Kovatcheva-Datchary, P., Cani, P. D., & Bäckhed, F. (2015). Crosstalk between gut microbiota and dietary lipids aggravates WAT inflammation through TLR signaling. Cell Metabolism, 22(4), 658-668. http://dx.doi.org 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.026
• Calder, P. C. (2020). Nutrition, immunity and COVID-19. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health, 3(1), 74. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000085
• Chew, B. P., Mathison, B. D., Hayek, M. G., Massimino, S., Reinhart, G. A., & Park, J. S. (2011). Dietary astaxanthin enhances immune response in dogs. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 140(3-4), 199-206.
• Childs, C. E., Calder, P. C., & Miles, E. A. (2019). Diet and immune function. Nutrients, 11(8), 1933. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081933
• Cian, R. E., Drago, S. R., De Medina, F. S., & Martínez-Augustin, O. (2015). Proteins and carbohydrates from red seaweeds: evidence for beneficial effects on gut function and microbiota. Marine drugs, 13(8), 5358-5383. https://doi.org/10.3390/md13085358
• Coelho, D., Alfaia, C. M., Lopes, P. A., Pestana, J. M., Costa, M. M., Pinto, R. M., Almeida, J. M., Moreira, O., Fontes, C. M. G. A. & Prates, J. A. (2022). Impact of Chlorella vulgaris as feed ingredient and carbohydrases on the health status and hepatic lipid metabolism of finishing pigs. Research in Veterinary Science. 144, 44-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.01.008
• Çetin, F. (2020). Bağışıklık Sistemi Desteklerinin Besin-İlaç Etkileşimi, İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2(1), 14-19.
• Das, S., & Green, A. (2013). Importance of zinc in crops and human health. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research, 11, 1-7.
• Debbarma, J., Rao, B. M., Murthy, L. N., Mathew, S., Venkateshwarlu, G., & Ravishankar, C. N. (2016). Nutritional profiling of the edible seaweeds Gracilaria edulis, Ulva lactuca and Sargassum sp. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 63(3), 81-87. https://doi.org/ 10.21077/ijf.2016.63.3.60073-11
• Doğan, M. (2020). Çinko Eksikliği ve Fazlalığı, Klinik Tıp Pediatri Dergisi, 12(1), 13-19.
• Dominguez, H., & Loret, E. P. (2019). Ulva lactuca, A Source of Troubles and Potential Riches. Marine Drugs, 17(6), 357. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/md17060357
• EL-Sabagh, M. R., Abd Eldaim, M. A., Mahboub, D. H., & Abdel-Daim, M. (2014). Effects of Spirulina platensis algae on growth performance, antioxidative status and blood metabolites in fattening lambs. Journal of Agricultural Science, 6(3), 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v6n3p92
• Erkan N., Selçuk A., & Özden Ö., (2010). Amino acid and vitamin composition of raw and cooked horse mackerel. Food Analytical Method, 3, 269-275.
• Filippini, T., Cilloni, S., Malavolti, M., Violi, F., Malagoli, C., Tesauro, M., ..., & Vinceti, M. (2018). Dietary ıntake of cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, selenium and zinc in a northern Italy community. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 50, 508-517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.03.001
• Gil, A., & Gil, F. (2015). Fish, a Mediterranean source of n-3 PUFA: benefits do not justify limiting consumption. British Journal of Nutrition, 113, 58-567. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114514003742
• Gottrand, F. (2008). Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids influence the immune system of onfants. The Journal of Nutrition, 138(9), 1807-1812. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/138.9.1807
• Guerin, M., Huntley, M. E., & Olaizola, M. (2003). Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition. Trends in Biotechnology, 21(5), 210-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7799(03)00078-7.
• Guo, Y., Chen, S., Xia, Z., & Yuan, J. (2004). Effects of different types of polyunsaturated fatty acids on ımmune function and PGE2 synthesis by peripheral blood leukocytes of laying hens. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 116(3-4), 249-258.
• Gutiérrez, S., Svahn, S. L., & Johansson, M. E. (2019). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on immune cells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(20), 5028. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20205028
• Güngör, E. Ö., Yaldız, N., & Özbek, S. Ç. (2020). İmmun sistemi destekleyen bazı mikronutrientler: Covid-19’a yönelik bir derleme. Yüksek İhtisas Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 1, 53-56.
• Güngörür, M. N., & Sühendan, M. (2019). Bir gıda olarak midye. Aydın Gastronomy, 3(2), 119-127.
• Hao, H., Han, Y., Yang, L., Hu, L., Duan, X., Yang, X., & Huang, R. (2019). Structural characterization and ımmunostimulatory activity of a novel polysaccharide from green alga caulerpa racemosa var peltata. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 134, 891-900.
• Hoseinifar, S. H., Yousefi, S., Capillo, G., Paknejad, H., Khalili, M., Tabarraei, A., & Faggio, C. (2018). Mucosal immune parameters, ımmune and antioxidant defence related genes expression and growth performance of zebrafish (Danio rerio) fed on Gracilaria gracilis powder. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 83, 232-237.
• Hosomi, R., Yoshida, M., & Fukunaga, K. (2012). Seafood consumption and components for health. Global Journal of Health Science, 4(3), 72. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2017.1399104
• Huang, Z., Liu, Y., Qi, G., Brand, D., & Zheng, S. G. (2018). Role of vitamin A in the immune system. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(9), 258. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7090258
• Irkin, L. C. (2021). The Effects of Shellfish Consumption Frequency for Human Health. In S. Ray, & S. Mukherjee (Eds.), Update on Malacology. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100405
• Jang, M. K., Kim, N. Y., Lee, D. G., Lee, J. H., Ha, J. M., Ha, B. J., & Lee, S. H. (2006). Effects of Ulva lactuca extracts on cytotoxicity of cancer cell lines and ımmune stimulation. Journal of Life Science, 16(7), 1169-1173. https://doi.org/10.5352/JLS.2006.16.7.1169
• Kagawa, Y. (2022). Influence of nutritional ıntakes in Japan and the United States on COVID-19 infection, Nutrients, 14(3), 633. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030633
• Kangalgil, M., & Yardımcı, H. (2017). Selenyumun İnsan Sağlığı Üzerine Etkileri Ve Diyabetes Mellitusla İlişkisi, Bozok Tıp Dergisi, 7(4), 66-71.
• Khalili Tilami, S., & Sampels, S. (2018). Nutritional value of fish: lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 26(2), 243-253.
• Khanam, S. (2018). Impact of zinc on immune response. Current Research in Immunology, 2(1), 1-2.
• Kim, J. D., & Lall, S. P. (2000). Amino acid composition of whole body tissue of atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), yellowtail flounder (Pleuronectes ferruginea) and Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Aquaculture, 187(3-4), 367-373.
• Kumar, N. G., Contaifer, D., Madurantakam, P., Carbone, S., Price, E. T., Van Tassell, B., & Wijesinghe, D. S. (2019). Dietary bioactive fatty acids as modulators of immune function: implications on human health, Nutrients, 11(12), 2974. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11122974
• Larsen, H. R. (2000). Fish Oils: The Essential Nutrients. International Health News, (103).
• Lee, D. G., Hyun, J. W., Kang, K. A., Lee, J. O., Lee, S. H., Ha, B. J., & Lee, J. H. (2004). Ulva lactuca: A potential seaweed for tumor treatment and immune stimulation. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, 9(3), 236-238.
• Lewis N. M., Seburg, S., & Flanagan, N. L. (2000). Enriched eggs as a source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for humans. The Journal of Poultry Science. 79, 971-974. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/79.7.971
• Li, P., Yin, Y. L., Li, D., Kim, S. W., & Wu, G. (2007). Amino acids and ımmune function. British Journal of Nutrition, 98(2), 237-252. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.6.1673S
• Maywald, M., Wessels, I., & Rink, L. (2017). Zinc Signals and Immunity, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(10), 2222. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijms18102222
• Mendivil, C. O. (2020). Dietary fish, fish nutrients, and immune function: a review. Frontiers in Nutrition, 7, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.617652
• Miles, E. A., Banerjee, T., Dooper, M. M., M'Rabet, L., Graus, Y. M., & Calder, P. C. (2004). The influence of different combinations of γ-linolenic acid, stearidonic acid and EPA on immune function in healthy young male subjects. British Journal of Nutrition, 91(6), 893-903. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN20041131
• Miles, E. A., Childs, C. E., & Calder, P. C. (2021). Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) and the developing ımmune system: a narrative review. Nutrients, 13(1), 247. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu1301024.
• Mirzaie, S., Zirak-Khattab, F., Hosseini, S. A., & Donyaei-Darian, H. (2018). Effects of dietary spirulina on antioxidant status, lipid profile, ımmune response and performance characteristics of broiler chickens reared under high ambient temperature. Asian-Australasian Journal Of Animal Sciences, 31(4), 556. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.17.0483
• Mishra, B., Tiwari, A., & Mahmoud, A. E. D. (2022). Microalgal Potential For Sustainable Aquaculture Applications: Bioremediation, Biocontrol, Aquafeed. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02254-1
• Mohanty, B., Mahanty, A., Ganguly, S., Sankar, T. V., Chakraborty, K., Rangasamy, A., ... & Sharma, A. P. (2014). Amino acid compositions of 27 food fishes and their importance in clinical nutrition. Journal of amino acids, 2014, 269797.
• Mol, S. (2008). Balık yağı tüketimi ve insan sağlığı üzerine etkileri. Journal of FisheriesSciences.com, 2(4), 601-607. https://doi.org/10.3153/jfscom.2008023
• Oehlenschläger, J. (2012). Seafood: nutritional benefits and risk aspects, International Journal For Vitamin And Nutrition Research, 82(3), 168-176. https://doi.org/10.1024/03009831/a000108
• Öksüz, A., Alkan, Ş. B., Taşkın, H., & Ayrancı, M. (2015). Yaşam boyu sağlıklı ve dengeli beslenme için balık tüketiminin önemi, Food and Health, 4(1), 43-62. https://doi.org/10.3153/JFHS18006
• Önal, H. Y., & Demirci, Z. (2020). İmmün sistemin gelişmesinde ve desteklenmesinde besin desteklerinin rolü, Sağlık Profesyonelleri Araştırma Dergisi, 2(3), 137-147.
• Özden, Ö., & Erkan, N. (2008). Comparison of biochemical composition of three aqua cultured fishes (Dicentrarchus labrax, Sparus aurata, Dentex dentex). International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 59(7-8), 545-557
• Özden, Ö. (2010). Micro, macro mineral and proximate composition of atlantic bonito and horse mackerel: a monthly differentiation. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 45(3), 578-586.
• Özden, Ö., & Erkan, N. (2011). A preliminary study of amino acid and mineral profiles of important and estimable 21 seafood species. British Food Journal, 113(4), 457-469.
• Özoğul,, İ. (2018). Spirulina platensis ve Chlorella vulgaris’den elde edilen ekstraktların soğuk depolanan (4±1ºC) sardalya (Sardinella aurita) filetoları üzerindeki antioksidan ve antimikrobiyal etkileri. (Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü)
• Özogul, İ., Kuley, E., Durmus, M., Özogul, Y., & Polat, A. (2021). The effects of microalgae (Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris) extracts on the quality of vacuum packaged sardine during chilled storage. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 15(2), 1327-1340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00729-1
• Ozogul, Y. (2019). Innovative technologies in seafood processing. London, CRC Press.
• Özsoy, S., & Saka, M. (2021). COVID-19 tanılı yoğun bakım hastalarında omega-3 çoklu doymamış yağ asitleri desteğinin etkileri. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi, 49(2), 65-72.
• Öztekin, A., Yigit, M., Kizilkaya, B., Ucyol, N., Tan, E., Yilmaz, S., & Ergun, S. (2020). Nutritional quality of amino acid in farmed, farm‐aggregated and wild axillary seabream (Pagellus acarne) with implications to human health, Aquaculture Research, 51(5), 1844-1853. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14534
• Pal, J., Shukla, B. N., Maurya, A. K., Verma, H. O., Pandey, G., & Amitha, A. (2018). A review on role of fish in human nutrition with special emphasis to essential fatty acid, International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6(2), 427-430.
• Pandolfi, F., Franza, L., Mandolini, C., & Conti, P. (2017). Immune modulation by vitamin d: special emphasis on ıts role in prevention and treatment of cancer. Clinical Therapeutics, 39(5), 884-893.
• Park, J. S., Chyun, J. H., Kim, Y. K., Line, L. L., & Chew, B. P. (2010). Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutrition & Metabolism, 7(1), 1-10.
• Park, J. S., Mathison, B. D., Hayek, M. G., Massimino, S., Reinhart, G. A., & Chew, B. P. (2011). Astaxanthin stimulates cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in cats. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 144(3-4), 455-461. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.08.019
• Qian, B., Shen, S., Zhang, J., & Jing, P. (2017). Effects of vitamin b6 deficiency on the composition and functional potential of t cell populations. Journal of Immunology Research, 2017, 2197975. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2197975
• Rasyid, A. (2017). Evaluation of nutritional composition of the dried seaweed Ulva lactuca from pameungpeuk waters, Indonesia. Tropical Life Sciences Research, 28(2), 119. https://doi.org/10.21315/tlsr2017.28.2.9
• Rayman, M. P. (2008). Food-chain selenium and human health: emphasis on intake. British Journal of Nutrition, 100(2), 254-268.
• Rees, D., Miles, E. A., Banerjee, T., Wells, S. J., Roynette, C. E., Wahle, K. W., & Calder, P. C. (2006). Dose-related effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on ınnate immune function in healthy humans: a comparison of young and older men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(2), 331-342. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/83.2.331
• Rink, L., & Haase, H. (2007). Zinc homeostasis and immunity. Trends in Immunology, 28(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2006.11.005
• Rocourt, C. R., & Cheng, W. H. (2013). Selenium supranutrition: are the potential benefits of chemoprevention outweighed by the promotion of diabetes and ınsulin resistance?. Nutrients, 5(4), 1349-1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5041349
• Roleda, M. Y., Lage, S., Aluwini, D. F., Rebours, C., Brurberg, M. B., Nitschke, U., & Gentili, F. G. (2021). Chemical Profiling of the Arctic Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) Mass-Cultivated on Land Under Controlled Conditions For Food Applications. Food Chemistry, 341, 127999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127999
• Ruth, M. R., & Field, C. J. (2013). The ımmune modifying effects of amino acids on gut-associated lymphoid tissue. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 4(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-1891-4-27
• Ryckebosch, E., Bruneel, C., Muylaert, K., & Foubert, I. (2012). Microalgae as an alternative source of omega‐3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, Lipid Technology, 24(6), 128-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102410
• Ryckebosch, E., Bruneel, C., Termote-Verhalle, R., Goiris, K., Muylaert, K., & Foubert, I. (2014). Nutritional evaluation of microalgae oils rich in omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as an alternative for fish oil, Food Chemistry, 160, 393-400.
• Salar, B., & Ayşe, U. Z. (2021). Omega yağ asitleri: biyolojik etkileri ve bitkisel kaynakları. Hacettepe University Journal of the Faculty of Pharmacy, 41(3), 194-209. https://doi.org/ 10.52794/hujpharm.920079
• Sanjeewa, K. A., Kang, N., Ahn, G., Jee, Y., Kim, Y. T., & Jeon, Y. J. (2018). Bioactive potentials of sulfated polysaccharides isolated from brown seaweed sargassum spp in related to human health applications: a review. Food Hydrocolloids, 81, 200-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.02.040
• Selmi, C., Leung, P. S., Fischer, L., German, B., Yang, C. Y., Kenny, T. P., ..., & Gershwin, M. E. (2011). The effects of Spirulina on anemia and immune function in senior citizens. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 8(3), 248-254.
• Shahidi, F. (2011). Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease. In Omega-3 Oils Applications in Functional Foods, (pp.1-30)
• Shakoor, H., Feehan, J., Al Dhaheri, A. S., Ali, H. I., Platat, C., Ismail, L. C., & Stojanovska, L. (2021). Immune-boosting role of vitamins d, c, e, zinc, selenium and omega-3 fatty acids: could they help against COVID-19?. Maturitas, 143, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.08.003
• Şimşek, A., Sarı, F., & Artık, N. (2004). Selenyumun insan beslenmesi ve sağlığı açısından önemi. Anadolu University Journal of Science and Technology, 5(2), 245-251.
• Tabarsa, M., Rezaei, M., Ramezanpour, Z., & Waaland, J. R. (2012). Chemical compositions of the marine algae Gracilaria salicornia (Rhodophyta) and Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) as a potential food source. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 92(12), 2500-2506. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5659
• Tacon, A. G., & Metian, M. (2013). Fish matters: importance of aquatic foods in human nutrition and global food supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 21(1), 22-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2012.753405
• Turan, H., Erkoyuncu, İ., & Kocatepe, D. (2013). Omega-6, Omega-3 Yağ Asitleri ve Balık. Yunus Araştırma Bülteni, 2, 45-50.
• Udayangani, C., Wijesekara, I., & Wickramasinghe, I. (2019). Characterization of sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) from Matara, Sri Lanka and development of nutribars as a functional food. Ruhuna Journal of Science, 10(2), 96-107. https://doi.org/10.4038/rjs.v10i2.76
• Venter, C., Meyer, R. W., Nwaru, B. I., Roduit, C., Untersmayr, E., Adel‐Patient, K., & O'Mahony, L. (2019). EAACI position paper: ınfluence of dietary fatty acids on asthma, food allergy, and atopic dermatitis. Allergy, 74(8), 1429-1444. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13764
• Venter, C., Eyerich, S., Sarin, T., & Klatt, K. C. (2020). Nutrition and the ımmune system: a complicated tango. Nutrients, 12(3), 818. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030818
• Venugopal, V., & Gopakumar, K. (2017). Shellfish: nutritive value, health benefits, and consumer safety. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 16(6), 1219-1242. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12312
• Vieira, E. F., Soares, C., Machado, S., Correia, M., Ramalhosa, M. J., Oliva-Teles, M. T., ... & Delerue-Matos, C. (2018). seaweeds from the portuguese coast as a source of proteinaceous material: total and free amino acid composition profile. Food Chemistry, 269, 264-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.145
• Wei, J., Wang, S., Liu, G., Pei, D., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., & Di, D. (2014). Polysaccharides from enteromorpha prolifera enhance the ımmunity of normal mice. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 64, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.11.013
• Wright, A. C., Fan, Y., & Baker, G. L. (2018). Nutritional value and food safety of bivalve molluscan shellfish. Journal of Shellfish Research, 37(4), 695-708. https://doi.org/10.2983/035.037.0403
• Wu, G. (2009). Amino Acids: Metabolism, Functions, and Nutrition. Amino Acids, 37(1), 1-17.
• Zha, X. Q., Lu, C. Q., Cui, S. H., Pan, L. H., Zhang, H. L., Wang, J. H., & Luo, J. P. (2015). Structural identification and immunostimulating activity af a Laminaria japonica polysaccharide. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 78, 429-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.04.047