Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde Sovyet Revizyonizmi’ne Karşı Kitapların Propaganda Amaçlı Kullanımı

Year 2021, , 159 - 182, 30.06.2021

Mehmet Sezai Türk , Özkan Avcı , Tuğba Baytimur

https://doi.org/10.24146/tk.923450

Cited By: 4

Abstract

Amaç: Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti (ÇHC)’nde Sovyet Revizyonizmi olarak adlandırılan ve Marksizm’e ihanet olarak değerlendirilen Kruşçev’in politikaları, Soğuk Savaş içerisinde Çin-Sovyet Ayrılığı olarak bilinen dönemin başlamasına yol açmıştır. Bu dönemde ÇHC, Sovyet Revizyonizmi’ne karşı propagandaya girişmiş, Çin halkının Sovyet Revizyonizmi’ne yönelik fikirlerden uzak durmasını amaçlamıştır. Propaganda sürecinde Çin halkının Marksist-Leninist temelli kitaplar okuması teşvik edilerek, ideolojik sapmanın önüne geçilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu dönemde hazırlanan ideolojik temelli posterlerde de kitaplar propaganda amaçlı olarak ön plana çıkarılmıştır. Bu çalışmada, dönemin ideolojik yansımalarının kitaplarla propaganda kapsamında nasıl kullanıldığını göstermek amaçlanmıştır. Yöntem: Çalışmada ÇHC tarafından Sovyet Revizyonizmi’ne ve ideolojik sapmaya karşı hazırlanan posterlerde kitapların propaganda amaçlı ne şekilde sunuldukları Jakobson’un göstergebilim yöntemi üzerinden incelenmiştir. Göstergebilim yöntemi olarak Jakobson’un iletişim modelindeki altı temel işlevden üçü (duygusal boyut, gönderimsel boyut ve çağrışımsal boyut) kullanılmıştır. Bulgular: Çalışmada elde edilen bulgularda, posterler üzerinden Çin toplumunda Marksist-Leninist kitapların okunmasına yönelik genel bir seferberliğin başlatıldığına ve bu seferberliğin kitleler tarafından desteklendiğine yönelik algının ön plana çıkarıldığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Özgünlük: Konuya ilişkin Türkiye adresli yapılan çalışmalar sınırlıdır. Araştırmanın özündeki tarihsel geçmiş incelendiğinde Sovyetler Birliği’nde Joseph Stalin’in ölümünden sonra ülkenin liderliğine gelen Nikita Kruşçev döneminde destalinizasyon sürecine girildiği ve dış siyasette Sovyetler Birliği ile ABD arasındaki ilişkilerin uzlaşı temelinde ilerlemesine çalışıldığı görülmektedir. Tüm bu süreçte Mao Zedong liderliğindeki ÇHC, Sovyetler Birliği’ndeki uygulamalara karşı çıkmış, iki ülke arasında ciddi ideolojik farklılıklar ortaya çıkmıştır. Yapılan çalışmada bu ideolojik farklılıkları yansıtan kitaplar konu edinilmiştir. Sonuç: ÇHC’nin Sovyetler Birliği’yle ideolojik açıdan mücadelesinde kitaplar önemli bir rol üstlenmektedir. ÇHC’nin, Çin halkını Sovyet Revizyonizmi’nden korumak için kitapları kullandığı ve Marksist-Leninist ideolojisine yönelik yayınların okunmasını teşvik ettiği ortaya çıkmaktadır.

Keywords

Sovyet Revizyonizmi, Kitap, Propaganda, Çin, Sovyetler Birliği

The Use of Books Against Soviet Revisionism for The Purpose of Propaganda in People's Republic of China

Abstract

Objective: The policies of Khrushchev, called Soviet Revisionism in the People's Republic of China (PRC) and considered as a betrayal of Marxism, led to the beginning of the period known as the Sino-Soviet Separation in the Cold War. During this period, the PRC embarked on propaganda against Soviet Revisionism and aimed to keep the Chinese people away from the ideas of Soviet Revisionism. In the propaganda process, the Chinese people were encouraged to read Marxist-Leninist based books and ideological deviation was tried to be prevented. In the ideological-based posters prepared in this period, the books were also highlighted for propaganda purposes. In this study, it was aimed to show how the ideological reflections of the period were used in books within the scope of propaganda. Method: In the study, how the books were presented for propaganda purposes in the posters prepared by the PRC against Soviet Revisionism and ideological deviation was examined through Jakobson's method of semiotics. Three of the six basic functions (emotive function, referential function and conative function) in Jakobson's communication model were used as semiotics method. Results: In the findings obtained in the study, it was concluded that a general mobilization was initiated in Chinese society towards reading Marxist-Leninist books through posters and the perception that this mobilization was supported by the masses was highlighted. Originality: Studies on the subject in Turkey were limited. When the historical background of the study was examined, it was seen that the destalization process was initiated in the Soviet Union in the reign of Nikita Khrushchev, who came to the leadership of the country after the death of Joseph Stalin and it was tried that the relations between the Soviet Union and the USA continued on the basis of consensus in foreign policy. In all this process, the PRC, led by Mao Zedong, opposed the practices in the Soviet Union and serious ideological differences emerged between the two countries. In the study, books reflecting these ideological differences were the subject. Conclusion: Books played an important role in the ideological struggle of the PRC with the Soviet Union. It was revealed that the PRC used books to protect the Chinese people from Soviet Revisionism and encouraged the reading of publications on Marxist-Leninist ideology.

Keywords

Soviet Revisionism, Book, Propaganda, China, Soviet Union

References

• Ahmad, S. H. (1965). The Sino-Soviet Conflict. International Studies, 7(4), 595-606. Doi: 10.1177/002088176500700405
• An, J. (2013). Mao Zedong’s “Three Worlds” Theory: Political considerations and value for the times. Social Sciences in China, 34(1), 35-57. Doi: 10.1080/02529203.2013.760715
• Arıca, F. A. (2019). Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde Mao Zedong döneminde spor yayıncılığı üzerine inceleme. TRT Akademi, 4(8), 392-408.
• Athwal, A. (2004). The United States and the Sino-Soviet Split: The key role of nuclear superiority. Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 17(2), 271-297. Doi: 10.1080/13518040490450547
• Bekcan, U. (2018). Sovyet-Çin Uyuşmazlığını Anlamak: 20. Kongre’den 1963 Parti Mektuplarına. The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 49, 89-115. Doi: 10.1501/Intrel_0000000318
• Bradford, R. (1994). Roman Jakobson: life, language, art. London: Taylor & Francis US.
• Brovkin, V. (1988). Stalinism, revisionism and the problem of conceptualisation: A review article. Soviet Studies, 40(3), 501-505. Doi: 10.1080/09668138808411771
• Burr, W. (2001). Sino-American relations, 1969: The Sino-Soviet border war and steps towards rapprochement. Cold War History, 1(3), 73-112. Doi: 10.1080/713999930
• Canfield, J. (1980). Marxist revisionism in East Germany: The case of Rudolf Bahro. Fletcher Forum, 4(1), 23-48.
• Caşu, I. (2018). ‘Down with revisionism and irredentism’: Soviet Moldavia and the Prague Spring, 1968–72. K. McDermott & M. Stibbe (Ed.). In Eastern Europe in 1968 (pp. 279-298). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Chaplin, D. (1974). The Sino-Soviet Conflict: How soon?. The RUSI Journal, 119(3), 55-57. Doi: 10.1080/03071847409430986
• Chase, W. (1987). Social history and revisionism of the Stalinist era. The Russian Review, 46(4), 382-385. Doi: 10.2307/130290
• Chen, K. (1964). North Vietnam in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1962-64. Asian Survey, 4(9), 1023-1036. Doi: 10.2307/2642395
• Choi, C. Y. (1982). The Sino‐Soviet conflict and its impact on the Korean Peninsula. Global Economic Review, 11(2), 1-20. Doi: 10.1080/12265088208422690
• Croitor, M. (2007). Between Marxism and revisionism. The Sino-Soviet relations: 1956-1959. Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai-Historia, 52(1-2), 123-147.
• Çakı, C. Zorlu, Y. & Karaca, M. (2017). Türk sinemasında Nazizm ideolojisi: “Kırımlı” filmi ve göstergebilimsel analizi. Sosyoloji Konferansları, (56), 67-95. Doi: 10.18368/IUSOSKON.328523
• Çakı, C., Gazi, M. A., Çakı, G., Gülada, M. O. (2020). Likbez kampanyası dönemindeki propaganda posterleri üzerine göstergebilimsel bir inceleme. Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 34(4), 663-692. Doi: 10.24146/tk.806892
• Çin Komünist Partisi (1964). Die proletarische Revolution und der Revisionismus Chruschtschows. Peking: Verlag für Fremdsprachige Literatur.
• Çin Komünist Partisi (1965). Carry the Struggle against Khrushchov Revisionism Through to the End - On the Occasion of the Second Anniversary of the Publicatıon of ''A Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement''. Peking: Foreign Languages Press.
• Darling, F. C. (1969). Mao Tse-Tung and Marxist-Leninist revisionism. Philippine Studies, 17(3), 412-435.
• David-Fox, M. (2004). On the primacy of ideology: Soviet revisionists and Holocaust deniers (in response to Martin Malia). Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 5(1), 81-105.
• Doenecke, J. D. (1972). Iran's role in Cold War revisionism. Iranian Studies, 5(2-3), 96-111. Doi: 10.1080/00210867208701427
• Dündar, G. (2020). Emek sömürüsü bağlamında insan ticareti. Göç Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(2), 326-349.
• Elliott, C. F. (1967). Quis custodiet sacra? Problems of Marxist revisionism. Journal of the History of Ideas, 28(1), 71-86. Doi: 10.2307/2708481
• Fajardo, J. (2010). The Letter of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China dated March 30, 1963, https://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/sino-soviet- split/cpsu/30march1963.htm, Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2021.
• Ferrell, R. H. (2006). Harry S. Truman and the Cold War revisionists. The United States: University of Missouri Press.
• Fitzpatrick, S. (2007). Revisionism in Soviet History. History and Theory, 46(4), 77-91. Doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2303.2007.00429.x
• Funnell, V. C. (1978). Vietnam and the Sino-Soviet Conflict, 1965–1976. Studies in Comparative Communism, 11(1-2), 142-169. Doi: 10.1016/0039-3592(78)90034-0
• Gaddis, J. L. (1983). The emerging post-revisionist synthesis on the origins of the Cold War. Diplomatic History, 7(3), 171-190. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1983.tb00389.x
• Gaddis, J. L. (1994). The tragedy of Cold War history: reflections on revisionism. Foreign Affairs, 73(1), 142-154. Doi: 10.2307/20045897
• Gazı̇, M. A., Çakı, C., Gülada, M. O. ve Çakı, G. (2020). Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti kültür devrimi sürecinde okuma alışkanlığının propaganda posterlerinde sunumu. Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 34(3), 406-431. Doi: 10.24146/tk.778685
• Gazi, M. A., Çakı, C., Karaca, M. & Çakı, G. (2021). 1980 Nikaragua okuryazarlık kampanyası’ndaki propaganda posterlerinin kitap okuma boyutunda incelenmesi. Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 35(1), 64-88. Doi: 10.24146/tk.873618
• Gittings, J. (1964). Co-operation and Conflict in Sino-Soviet relations. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 40(1), 60-75. Doi: 10.2307/2609698
• Harriman, W. A. (1965). Sino-Soviet Conflict. Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, 28(1), 101-111. Doi: 10.2307/1173719
• Howard, M. C., & King, J. E. (1988). The revival of revisionism: The political economy of German Marxism 1914-29. European History Quarterly, 18(4), 409-426. Doi: 10.1177/026569148801800402
• IISH (2021a). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Birinci Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F829987, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021b). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu İkinci Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F998025, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021c). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Üçüncü Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F994087, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021d). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Dördüncü Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1454253, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021e). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Beşinci Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1285664, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021f). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Altıncı Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1199709, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021g). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Yedinci Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1075690, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021h). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Sekizinci Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1057809, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• IISH (2021i). Sovyet Revizyonizmi ve Kitaplar Konulu Dokuzuncu Poster, https://iisg.amsterdam/en/detail?id=https%3A%2F%2Fiisg.amsterdam%2Fid%2Fitem%2F1065776, Erişim Tarihi: 15.03.2021.
• Işık, M. & Karaca, M. (2019). Vichy Fransası'nda müttefik devletlerine karşı yürütülen propaganda faaliyeti. Anadolu Akademi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1(3), 43-62.
• Iwashita, A. (2008). Border dynamics in Eurasia: Sino‐soviet border disputes and the aftermath. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 23(3), 69-81. Doi: 10.1080/08865655.2008.9695709
• Jakobson, R. (1962). Selected Writings I Phonological Studies. The Hague: Mouton & Co.
• Jakobson, R. (1971). Selected Writings II Word and Language. The Hague: Mouton & Co.
• Jakobson, R. (1977). Ensayos de poética. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica.
• Jakobson, R. (1978). Six Lectures on Sound and Meaning. London: The MIT Press.
• Jakobson, R. (1980). The framework of language. Michigan Studies in the Humanities: Michigan Slavic Publications.
• Joppke, C. (1994). Revisionism, dissidence, nationalism: opposition in Leninist regimes. British Journal of Sociology, 45(4), 543-561. Doi: 10.2307/591882
• Kaplan, L. S. (1987). The Cold War and European Revisionism. Diplomatic History, 11(2), 143-156. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1987.tb00010.x
• Keskin Yılmaz, Y. K., Çakı, C. & Kazaz, A. (2020). Nazi Almanya'sı döneminde Nazizm ideolojisindeki antisemitist propaganda mitlerinin eğitime yansıması. Selçuk İletişim, 13(3), 1081-1113.
• King, R. R. (1972). Rumania and the Sino-Soviet Conflict. Studies in Comparative Communism, 5(4), 373-393. Doi: 10.1016/0039-3592(72)90019-1
• Kort, M. (2007). The historiography of Hiroshima: The rise and fall of revisionism. The New England Journal of History, 64(1), 31-48.
• Kuisong, Y. (2000). The Sino-Soviet border clash of 1969: From Zhenbao Island to Sino-American rapprochement. Cold War History, 1(1), 21-52. Doi: 10.1080/713999906
• Laibman, D. (2005). The soviet demise: Revisionist betrayal, structural defect, or authoritarian distortion?. Science & Society, 69(4), 594-606. Doi: 10.1521/siso.2005.69.4.594
• Lange, K. (1979). Albanian Marxism's notion of revisionism. Studies in Soviet Thought, 20(1), 61-66.
• Leach, E. R. (1983). “Roman Jakobson and Social Anthropology”, M. Halle & P. E. Gray (Ed.), A Tribute to Roman Jakobson 1896-1982 (s.10-16). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
• Leigh, M. (1974). Is There a Revisionist Thesis on the Origins of the Cold War?. Political Science Quarterly, 89(1), 101-116. Doi: 10.2307/2148117
• Li, M. (2011). Ideological dilemma: Mao's China and the Sino-Soviet Split, 1962–63. Cold War History, 11(3), 387-419. Doi: 10.1080/14682745.2010.498822
• Macdonald, D. J. (1995). Communist bloc expansion in the Early Cold War: Challenging realism, refuting revisionism. International Security, 20(3), 152-188.
• Maddox, R. J. (1984). The rise and fall of Cold War revisionism. The Historian, 46(3), 416-428. Doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1984.tb01247.x
• Madra, Ö. (1971). Kruşçef’ten Sonra Çin-Sovyet İlişkileri (1965-1970). Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 26(1), 273-321.
• Marku, Y. (2020). Communist relations in crisis: The end of Soviet-Albanian relations, and the Sino-Soviet Split, 1960–1961. The International History Review, 42(4), 813-832. Doi: 10.1080/07075332.2019.1620825
• Mcmahon, J. R. (2013). Soğuk Savaş. (S. Gül, Çev.). Ankara: Dost Kültür Yayınları.
• Mitchell, R. J. (1974). The Sino-Soviet Conflict and the Marxist-Leninist theory of development. Studies in Comparative Communism, 7(1-2), 119-145. Doi: 10.1016/0039-3592(74)90030-1
• Munck, R. (1992). The new Marxist revisionism in Ireland. Capital & Class, 16(1), 95-110. Doi: 10.1177/030981689204600105
• Olczyk, A. (2017). Marxist trait of revisionism: Leszek Kołakowski’s consistent transition to inconsistent philosophy. Internetowy Magazyn Filozoficzny Hybris, (37), 12-33.
• Paltemaa, L. (2007). The Democracy Wall movement, Marxist revisionism, and the variations on socialist democracy. Journal of Contemporary China, 16(53), 601-625. Doi: 10.1080/10670560701562325
• Patan, İ. (2020). “Saussure, Peirce ve Göstergebilim Araştırmaları”. Ç. M. Hazar & Ö. Avcı (Ed.), İletişim Kuramları (s.745-777). Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi.
• Perry, R. (2008). Revisionist Marxist Theory in Ireland. Critique, 36(1), 121-139. Doi: 10.1080/03017600801892789
• Pipes, R. (1993). 1917 and the Revisionists. The National Interest, (31), 68-79.
• Rendle, M. (2010). Post-revisionism: The continuing debate on Stalinism. Intelligence and National Security, 25(3), 370-388. Doi: 10.1080/02684527.2010.490359
• Rifat, M. (2018). Açıklamalı Göstergebilim Sözlüğü: Kavramlar, Yöntemler, Kuramcılar, Okullar. İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları.
• Robinson, T. W. (1972). The Sino-Soviet border dispute: Background, development, and the March 1969 clashes. The American Political Science Review, 66(4), 1175-1202. Doi: 10.2307/1957173
• Rupen, R. A. (1965). Sino-Soviet Conflict: Report on Sino-Soviet Conflict and its implications. Naval War College Review, 18(1), 63-72.
• Sawyer, S. (2015). Was Thorstein Veblen a revisionist Marxist?. Journal of Economic Issues, 49(2), 467-473. Doi: 10.1080/00213624.2015.1042780
• Scalapino, R. A. (1964). The Sino-Soviet Conflict in perspective. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 351(1), 1-14. Doi: 10.1177/000271626435100102
• Shen, S., & Li, C. K. (2015). The cultural side-effects of the Sino-Soviet Split: The influence of Albanian movies in China in the 1960s. Modern China Studies, 22(1), 215-231.
• Skendi, S. (1962). Albania and the Sino-Soviet Conflict. Foreign Affairs, 40(3), 471-478. Doi: 10.2307/20029570
• Stueck, W. (1973). Cold war revisionism and the origins of the Korean conflict: the Kolko thesis. Pacific Historical Review, 42(4), 537-560. Doi: 10.2307/3638137
• Thornton, R. C. (1986). Strategic change and American foreign policy: Perceptions of the Sino-Soviet Conflict. Journal of Northeast Asian Studies, 5(1), 49-70. Doi: 10.1007/BF03026488
• Toma, P. A. (1968). Sociometric measurements of the Sino-Soviet Conflict: Peaceful and nonpeaceful revolutions. The Journal of Politics, 30(3), 732-748. Doi: 10.2307/2128803
• Zagoria, D. S. (1961). The 1957 Moscow Conference and the Sino-Soviet Dispute. The China Quarterly, (7), 17-34.
• Zagoria, D. S. (1974). Mao's role in the Sino-Soviet Conflict. Pacific Affairs, 47(2), 139-153. Doi: 10.2307/2755604