CONSTITUTIONAL CRISES AND REFERANDUMS IN TURKEY

Year 2021, Issue: 44, 61 - 100, 31.12.2021

Muhammet Derviş Mete

Abstract

Referandumların kullanımı son otuz yılda önemli ölçüde artmıştır. Son dönemde Türkiye’de yapılan referandumlar, referandumların ciddi değişimlerin yaşandığı ve politik belirsizliğin olduğu dönemlerde ciddi bir artış gösterdiğini iddia eden görüşleri destekler niteliktedir. Bu çalışmamızda Türkiye’nin 2007 ve 2017 referandumlarına yer verilecektir. Bu bağlamda cevaplanması gereken bazı önemli sorular ortaya çıkmaktadır: Özellikle kriz dönemlerinde referandumlar hangi ölçüde ve nasıl anayasal çözümler sunabilmektedir? Referandumlar anayasal bir krizi başlatabilir mi yahut mevcut bir krizi daha da derinleştirebilir mi? Bu ve benzeri sorulara cevap verebilmek amacıyla, çalışmamızın ilk bölümünde referandumların uygulanmasına ilişkin farklı perspektifleri de içeren kapsamlı bir giriş yapılmaktadır. Devamında, çalışmanın amacı, kapsamı ve ehemmiyetini ortaya koyan argümanlar sunulacaktır. İkinci bölümde, anayasal kriz nedir ve nasıl kategorize edilir sorularının üzerinde durulacaktır. Üçüncü bölüm Türkiye’de 2007 yılında yapılan referandumu bir kriz-çözücü referandum olarak tasnif edecek ve bu iddiayı gerekçelendirecektir. Takip eden bölümlerde, başkanlık sistemi referandumu, anayasal krizleri derinleştirici referandum olarak kategorize edilecek ve ortaya çıkan sorunlar ele alınacaktır.

Keywords

Anayasal Kriz, Kriz-Çözücü Referandumlar, Kriz-Tetikleyici Referandumlar, Türk Tipi Başkanlık Sistemi, Delegasyoncu Demokrasi

References

• Alpan Başak, “From AKP’s ‘Conservative Democracy’ to ‘Advanced Democracy’: Shifts and Challenges in the Debate on ‘Europe’’, South European Society and Politics, C. 21, S. 01, 2016, ss. 15-28.
• Anckar Dag, “Constitutional Referendums in the Countries of the World”, JPL, C. 7, S.1, 2014, ss.12-22.
• Atar Yavuz, “The Main Features of 1982 Turkish Constitution and Recent Constitutional Changes in Turkey”, Selcuk University Law Faculty Press, C. 9, S. 1, 2001, ss.215-235.
• Atasoy Yıldız, Turkey, Islamists, and Democracy: Transition and Globalization in a Muslim State, London: I.B. Tauris, London, 2005.
• Atikcan Ece Ö/ Öge Kerem, “Referendum Campaigns in Polarized Societies: The Case of Turkey”, Turkish Studies, C. 13, S. 03, 2012, ss.449-470.
• Balkin Jack M., Constitutional Crisis and Constitutional Rot, (eds) in Mark A. Graber, Sanford Levinson, Mark Tushnet; Constitutional Democracy in Crisis?
• Baydar Yavuz, “Turkey’s Media: A Polluted Landscape”, Index on Censorship, C. 42, S. 02, 2013, ss.140-145.
• Bogdanor Vernon, The People and the Party System: The Referendum and Electoral Eeform in British Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1981.
• Butler David/ Ranney Austin, Referendums Around the World, Macmillan, Washington D.C, 1994.
• Celep Ödül, “Perspectives on Turkeys 2017 Presidential Referendum”, Middle East Review of International Affairs, C. 21, S.01, 2017, ss.1-8.
• Cheibub Jose Antonio/ Elkins Zachary/ Ginsburg Tom, “Latin American Presidentialism in Comparative and Historical Perspective”, C. 89, S. 07, 2011, ss.1707-1739.
• Ciftci Kemal “The Kemalist Hegemony in Turkey and the Justice and Development Party (AKP) as an ‘Other’’, Centre international de formation européenne Europe en formation, C. 367, S. 01, 2013, ss.143-169.
• Collier David/ Levitsky Steven, “Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research”, World Pol, C. 49, S.03, 1997, ss.430-451.
• Cotton Ross/ Fontana Cary, “Political Parties at Critical Junctures: Explaining the Decisions to Offer Referendums on Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom”, Contemporary British History, C. 33, S. 01, 2019, ss.1-27.
• Demirel Tanel, “Lessons of Military Regimes and Democracy: The Turkish Case in a Comparative Perspective”, Armed Forces & Society, C. 31, S.02, 2005, ss.245-271.
• Demunter Andre, “Turkey at a Historic Crossroads: Turkey: The Venice Commission’s Opinion on the Amendments to the Turkish Constitution to be Submitted to a National Referendum on 16 April 2017”, 2017, ss.1-11.
• Esen Berk/Gümüşçü Şebnem, “A Small Yes for Presidentialism: The Turkish Constitutional Referendum of April 2017”, South European Society and Politics, C. 22, S. 03, 2017, ss.303-326.
• Fitzgerald Scott T, “Conceptualizing and Understanding the Gülen Movement”, Sociology Compass, C. 11, S. 03, 2017.
• Frankenberg Günter, “Comparative Constitutional Law” in Mauro Bussani and Ugo Mattei (editor), The Cambridge Companion to Comparative Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012, ss.171-190.
• Frey Frederick W, The Turkish Political Elite, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1965.
• Fuller Graham, “The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World”, Chapter 6: The Reemergence of Turkish Islam, ss.49-66.
• Gönenç Levent, “Presidential Elements in Government: Turkey”, European Constitutional Law Review, C. 4, S. 03, 2008, ss.488-523.
• Graziadei Michele, “Comparative Law as the Study of Transplants and Receptions”, in Zımermann Reinhard Reimann Mathias (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law, Oxford University Press, 2006, ss.442-474.
• Gülener Serdar/ Miş Nebi “Constitutional Framework of Executive Presidency in Turkey”, SETA C. 29, S.12, 2017, ss.1-34
• Hale William/ Ozbudun Ergun, Islamism, Democracy and Liberalism in Turkey: The Case of the AKP, Routledge, Florence, 2010.
• Harvey David, “Editorial: A Breakfast Vision”, Geographical Review, C. 03, S. 01, 1989.
• Horwitz Morton J, “Constitutional Transplants”, Theoretical Inquiries in Law, C. 10, S. 02, 2009, ss.535-560.
• Huntington Samuel P., “The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century”, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, London, 1991, ss.174-192.
• Kalaycioğlu Ersin, “Turkish Popular Presidential Elections: Deepening Legitimacy Issues and Looming Regime Change”, South European Society and Politics, C. 20, S. 02, 2015, ss.157-179.
• Kelly Duncan, “Carl Schmitt’s Political Theory of Dictatorship” in Jens Meierhenrich, Oliver Simons and Duncan Kelly (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt, Oxford University Press, C. 01, 2013, ss.218-237.
• Kissane Bill, “What Is at Stake in the What is at Stake in the Turkish Constitutional Referendum?”, The Foundation for Law, Justice and Society, 2017, ss.1-12.
• Kuzu Burhan, Her Yönüyle Başkanlık Sistemi, BKY, Istanbul, 2011. Leduc Lawrence, The Politics of Direct Democracy: Referendums in Global Perspective, Broadview Press, Toronto, 2004.
• Levinson Sanford and Balkin Jack M., “Constitutional Crises,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 157 (2009): 707– 754
• Linz Juan J/ Stepan Alfred, Problems of democratic transition and consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe, Johns Hopkins University Press, London, 1996.
• Mardin Serif, "Center-Periphery Relations: A Key to Turkish Politics?", Daedalus, C. 102, S. 01, 1973, ss.169–190.
• Mardin Şerif, Religion, Society, and Modernity in Turkey: Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East, Syracuse University Press, London, 2006.
• Moe Terry M/ Caldwell Michael, “The Institutional Foundations of Democratic Government: A Comparison of Presidential and Parliamentary Systems”, Journal of Institutional and Therotical Economics( JITE), C. 150, S. 01, 1994, ss.171-195.
• Montesquieu Charles de Secondat/ et al., The Spirit of the Laws, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989.
• Özbudun Ergun, Contemporary Turkish Politics: Challenges to a Democratic Consolidation, Lynne Rienner Publishers, London, 2000.
• Özbudun Ergun/Gençkaya Ömer F, Democratization and the Politics of Constitution-making in Turkey, Central European University Press, Budapest, 2009.
• Qvortrup Matt, “Direct Democracy”, Journal of Democracy, C. 28, S. 03, 2017 s.141-152.
• Ristroph Alice, “Is Law - Constitutional Crisis and Existential Anxiety” (2009) 25(3) Const Comment 431
• Siaroff Alan, “Comparative Presidencies: The Inadequacy of the Presidential, Semi-presidential and Parliamentary Distinction”, Eur J Political Res, C. 42, S. 03, 2003, ss.287-312.
• Siems Mathias, Comparative law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014.
• Steven L /Collier David, “Democracy 'with adjectives': Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research”, Kellogg Institute ed, 1996.
• Suksi Markku, Bringing in the People: A Comparison of Constitutional Forms and Practices of the Referendum, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht-Boston-London, 1993.
• Sural Nurhan, “Islamic Outfits in the Workplace in Turkey, a Muslim Majority Country”, Comparative labor law & policy journal, C. 30, S. 03, ss.569-596.
• Tierney Stephen, “Constitutional Referendums: A Theoretical Enquiry”, Modern Law Review, C. 72, S. 03, 2009, ss.360-383.
• Taş Hakkı, “Turkey – From Tutelary to Delegative Democracy”, Third World Quarterly, C. 36, S. 04, 2015, ss.776-791.
• Taş Hakkı, “Turkey's Ergenekon Imbroglio and Academia's Apathy”, Insight Turkey, C. 16, S. 01, 2014, ss.163-179.
• Topaloff Liubomir, “Elite Strategy or Populist Weapon?”, Journal of Democracy, C. 28, S. 03, 2017, ss.127-140.
• Ulusoy Kıvanç, “Turkey’s Fight Against Corruption: A Critical Assessment”, Sabanci University IPC, 2014, ss.1-5.
• Ünver Akin H, “Turkey’s “Deep-State” and the Ergenekon Conundrum”, The Middle East Institute, 2009, ss.1-25.
• Watson Alan, Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law, University of Georgia Press, Athens, 1993.
• Whittington Keith E., “Yet Another Constitutional Crisis?”, 43 WM. & MARY L. REV. nn.2-3 (2002).
• Yilmaz Selman, “Social Mobility and Its Discontents: The Center-Periphery Cleavage of Turkey”, TAKSAD, C. 03, S. 02, 2014, ss.28-44.
• Yilmaz Selman, State, Politics, and Religion: Effects of Political and Social Change on the Relationship Between State and Religion in Turkey, 2002-2012, PhD, University of Pittsburgh, 2013.
• Dalay Galip, ‘Turkey's parallel state strikes back’ <https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/01/turkey-parallel-state-strikes-back-20141545517864901.html> (Erisim Tarihi: 27.07.2019)
• Drechselova Lucie, ‘Turkey: AKP’s Hidden Agenda or a Different Vision of Secularism?’ (2011) http://www.nouvelle-europe.eu/en/turkey-akp-s-hidden-agenda-or-different-vision-secularism (Erisim Tarihi: 20.10.2019)
• Akyol Mustafa, ‘Why does Erdoğan want a ‘presidential system?’’ <http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/mustafa-akyol/why-does-erdogan-want-a-presidential-system--78004> (Erisim Tarihi:12.09.2018)
• OSCE, ‘OSCE/ODIHR final report on Turkey’s constitutional referendum recommends reviewing legal framework to secure fundamental rights and freedoms | OSCE’ <https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/turkey/324806> (Erisim Tarihi: 19.09.2018)
• Sontag Deborah, ‘The Erdogan Experiment’ <https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/magazine/the-erdogan-experiment.html> (Erisim Tarihi: 30.11.2020)
• The Economist, ‘Divorce, European-style’ <https://www.economist.com/britain/2017/08/31/divorce-european-style> (Erisim Tarihi: 21.11.2020)
• Toygur Ilke, ‘Turkish constitutional referendum preview: A polarised society at a crossroads’ (2017) <http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2017/04/13/turkey-referendum-evet-hayir-erdogan/> (Erisim Tarihi: 21.09.2018)
• Yeni Şafak, ‘Erdoğan Insists on Turkish-Style Presidential System’ Yeni Şafak (27 February 2015) https://www.yenisafak.com/en/news/erdogan-insists-on-turkish-style-presidential-system-2089945 (Erisim Tarihi: 03.10.2019)