MACARİSTAN’DA DEMOKRASİNİN GERİLEMESİ ÖRNEĞİNDE AVRUPA BİRLİĞİ’NİN HUKUKUN ÜSTÜNLÜĞÜNÜ KORUMA POLİTİKALARI

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 22, 1 - 28, 30.08.2023

Fulya Akgül Durakçay

https://doi.org/10.58884/akademik-hassasiyetler.1295652

Öz

Macaristan, Avrupa Birliği’ne (AB) içeriden meydan okuyan üye ülkelerden biridir. Viktor Orban yönetimindeki son yasal ve anayasal değişiklikler AB’nin demokrasi ile ilgili kural, norm ve değerlerinin üyeleri tarafından ihlalini engellemeye yönelik kapasitesini ve siyasi iradesini sorgulatmaktadır. Ülkedeki mevcut demokratik gerilemenin “illiberal” demokrasi, “sorunlu” ya da “arızalı” demokrasi ve “seçimli otokrasi” olarak tanımlanmasıyla bağlantılı olarak bu çalışma süreci demokrasinin gerilemesi olarak ele almaktadır. Bu çalışma, AB’nin Macaristan’da demokrasinin gerilemesini nasıl yönettiğini analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu amaçla araştırma AB resmi belgeleri ve yayınları ile çeşitli uluslararası kuruluşların demokrasi indekslerinin içerik analizine ve ikincil literatüre dayanmaktadır. AB’nin, Macaristan’daki demokratik gerilemeyi bir hukukun üstünlüğü krizi olarak ele aldığı bulgusundan hareket eden çalışma, AB’nin üye devletlerde hukukun üstünlüğünü korumaya yönelik kurumsal mekanizmalarını ve politika araçlarını araştırmaktadır. Çalışma Macaristan’da demokrasinin gerilemesi örneği üzerinden AB’nin hukukun üstünlüğünü korumada siyasi iradesini ve mekanizmalarını tartışarak literatüre güncel bir katkı sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Avrupa Birliği, Macaristan, Demokrasi, Hukukun Üstünlüğü, Demokrasinin Gerilemesi

THE EUROPEAN UNION’S POLICIES TO PROTECT THE RULE OF LAW IN THE CASE OF DEMOCRATIC BACKSLIDING IN HUNGARY

Öz

Hungary is one of the European Union (EU) members challenging the EU from within. The recent legal and constitutional changes under Viktor Orban’s governments question the EU’s capacity and political will to prevent the violations by its members of its rules, norms and values pertaining to democracy. In conjunction with the definition of the current democratic decline in the country as “illiberal” democracy, “defective” democracy or “elected autocracy”, this study addresses the process as democratic backsliding. This study aims to analyse how the EU manages democratic backsliding in Hungary. For this purpose, the research is based on the content analysis of official EU documents and publications, democracy indexes of various international institutions as well as secondary literature. Considering the EU’s approach to democratic decline in Hungary as a rule of law crisis, the study explores the EU’s institutional mechanisms and policy tools to protect the rule of law in its member states. This study aims to make a contemporary contribution to the literature by discussing the EU’s political will and mechanisms to protect the rule of law in the case of Hungary’s democratic backsliding.

Anahtar Kelimeler

European Union, Hungary, Democracy, Rule of Law, Democratic Backsliding

Kaynakça

• Agh, A. (2015). Redemocratization efforts in Hungary as a second try: Civil society organizations and mass movements. Problemy Polityki Spolecznej Studia i Dyskusje, 31(3), 9-35.
• Agh, A. (2016). The decline of democracy in East-Central Europe: Hungary as the worst-case scenario. Problems of Post-Communism, 63(5), 277-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2015.1113383
• Anders, L.H. and Priebus, S. (2021). Does it help to call a spade a spade? Examining the legal bases and effects of rule of law-related infringement procedures against Hungary. In A. Lorenz and L.H. Anders (Eds.), Illiberal trends and anti-EU politics in East Central Europe (235-262). Switzerland: Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics.
• Bajomi-Lazar, P. (2013). The party colonisation of the media. East European Politics and Societies and Cultures, 27(1), 69-89. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0888325412465085.
• Bakke, E. and Sitter, N. (2022). The EU’s enfants terribles: democratic backsliding in Central Europe since 2010. Perspectives on Politics, 20(1), 22-37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720001292
• Batory, A. (2022). The political context of EU accession in Hungary. The Royal Institute of International Affairs Briefing Paper. Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Europe/hungarian.pdf on 20.06.2023
• Batory, A. (2016). Defying the Commission: Creative compliance and respect for the rule of law in the EU. Public Administration, 94(3), 685-699. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12254
• Batory, A. and Svensson, S. (2019). The use and abuse of participatory governance by populist governments. Policy and Politics, 47(2), 227-244. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557319X15487805848586
• Bayram, M.H. (2018). Avrupa Birliği’nin dayandığı değerlerin korunması. T.C. Uyuşmazlık Mahkemesi, 6(1), 67-82.
• Bermeo, N. (2016). On democratic backsliding. Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5-19.
• Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2012). BTI 2012 – Hungary country report. Retrieved from https://bti-project.org/fileadmin/api/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2012_HUN.pdf on 11.11.2022
• Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2022). BTI 2022 country report – Hungary. Retrieved from https://bti-project.org/fileadmin/api/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2022_HUN.pdf on 11.11.2022
• Bogaards, M. (2018). De-democratization in Hungary: Diffusely defective democracy. Democratization, 25(8), 1481-1499. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2018.1485015
• Buzogany, A. (2017). Illiberal democracy in Hungary: authoritarian diffusion or domestic causation?. Democratization, 24(7), 1307-1325.
• Canveren, Ö. and Akgül Durakçay, F. (2017). The analysis of the Hungarian government’s discourse towards the migrant crisis: a combination of securitization and Euroscepticism. Yönetim ve Ekonomi, 24(3), 857-876. https://doi.org/10.18657/yonveek.307339
• Central European University. (2018, December 3). CEU forced out of Budapest: to launch U.S. degree programs in Vienna in September 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ceu.edu/article/2018-12-03/ceu-forced-out-budapest-launch-us-degree-programs-vienna-september-2019 on 22.02.2023
• Chennamaneni, L. (2019, September 9). Towards a concept of court-packing. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3496986
• Christopoulou, A.E. (2022). Civil society and rule of law backsliding in the EU. European Public Law, 28(2), 245-268. https://doi.org/10.54648/euro2022013
• Cianetti, L., Dawson, J. and Hanley, S. (2018). Rethinking ‘democratic backsliding’ in Central and Eastern Europe – looking beyond Hungary and Poland. East European Politics, 34(3), 243-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2018.1491401
• Closa, C. (2019). The politics of guarding the Treaties: Commission scrutiny of rule of law compliance. Journal of European Public Policy, 26(5), 696-716. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2018.1477822
• Cotter, J. (2022, March 29). To everything there is a season: instrumentalising Article 10 TEU to exclude undemocratic member state representatives from the European Council and the Council. European Law Review, 47(1), 69-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4032080
• Council of the European Union (Council). (2022, December 12). Press release – Rule of law conditionality mechanism: Council decides to suspend €6.3 billion given only partial remedial action by Hungary. Retrieved from https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/12/12/rule-of-law-conditionality-mechanism/ on 19.04.2023
• Csaky, Z. (2020). Nations in transit 2020: dropping the democratic facade. Freedom House. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/05062020_FH_NIT2020_vfinal.pdf on 02.02.2023
• Dahl, R.A. (1971). Polyarchy: participation and opposition. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
• De la Baume, M. (2021, March 3). Orban’s Fidesz quits EPP group in European Parliament. Politico. Retrieved from https://www.politico.eu/article/epp-suspension-rules-fidesz-european-parliament-viktor-orban-hungary/ on 20.04.2023
• Diamond, L. (1997). Introduction: in search of consolidation. In L. Diamond, M.F. Plattner, Y. Chu and H. Tien (Eds.), Consolidating the third wave democracies: themes and perspectives (xiii-xlvii). Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Enyedi, Z. (2018). Democratic backsliding and academic freedom in Hungary. American Political Science Association, 16(4), 1067-1074. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592718002165
• EUR-Lex. (n.d.). Judgment of the Court of 23 April 1986. Parti écologiste “Les Verts” v European Parliament. Action for annulment – information campaign for the elections of the European Parliament. Case 294/83. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A61983CJ0294 on 19.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2012a, September 12). Speech: José Manuel Durão Barroso President of the European Commission state of the Union 2012 address plenary session of the European Parliament/Strasbourg 12 September 2012. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_12_596 on 04.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2012b, April 25). Press release – Hungary – infringements: European Commission satisfied with changes to central bank statute, but refers Hungary to the Court of Justice on the independence of the data protection authority and measures affecting the judiciary. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_12_395 on 07.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2013a, September 4). Speech: The EU and the rule of law – what next?. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_13_677 on 03.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2013b, September 11). Speech: state of the Union address 2013. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_13_684 on 04.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2014, March 11). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – a new EU framework to strengthen the rule of law COM(2014) 158 final. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52014DC0158&from=EN on 05.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2017a, December 7). Press release – Commission refers Hungary to the European Court of Justice of the EU over the higher education law. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/es/IP_17_5004 07.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2017b, December 7). Press release – infringements – European Commission refers Hungary to the Court of Justice for its NGO law. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/ES/IP_17_5003 on 07.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2019a, April 3). Press release – rule of law: the Commission opens a debate to strengthen the rule of law in the EU. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_19_1912 on 07.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2019b, July 17). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – strengthening the rule of law within the Union - a blueprint for action COM(2019) 343 final. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52019DC0343&from=EN on 08.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2019c, July 25). Press release – Commission takes Hungary to Court for criminalising activities in support of asylum seekers and opens new infringement for non-provision of food in transit zones. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_19_4260 on 09.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (2022, July 15). Press release – Commission refers Hungary to the Court of Justice of the EU over violation of LGBTIQ rights. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_22_2689 on 10.04.2023
• European Commission (EC). (n.d.) Rule of law mechanism. Retrieved from https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/upholding-rule-law/rule-law/rule-law-mechanism_en on 07.04.2023
• European Council. (1974, December 14). Declaration on European identity. Bulletin of the European Communities, (12). Retrieved from https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/1999/1/1/02798dc9-9c69-4b7d-b2c9-f03a8db7da32/publishable_en.pdf on 02.04.2023
• European Council. (1978, April 7-8). Conclusions of the sessions of the European Council. Bulletin of the European Communities, (8). Retrieved from http://aei.pitt.edu/1440/1/Copenhagen_1978.pdf on 02.04.2023
• European Council. (1993, June 21-22). European Council in Copenhagen – conclusions of the Presidency. Retrieved from https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21225/72921.pdf on 02.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2013). Report on the situation of fundamental rights: standards and practices in Hungary (pursuant to the European Parliament resolution of 16 February 2012) 2012/2130(INI). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-7-2013-0229_EN.pdf on 14.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2015a, June 10). European Parliament resolution of 10 June 2015 on the situation in Hungary (2015/2700(RSP)). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2015-0227_EN.pdf on 09.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2015b, December 16). European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2015 on the situation in Hungary (2015/2935(RESP)). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2015-0461_EN.pdf 09.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2016, October 25). Resolution of 25 October 2016 with recommendations to the Commission on the establishment of an EU mechanism on democracy, the rule of law and fundamental rights 2015/2254(INL). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2016-0409_EN.html on 06.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2018a, July 4). Report on a proposal calling on the Council to determine, pursuant to Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union, the existence of a clear risk of a serious breach by Hungary of the values on which the Union is founded 2017/2131(INL).Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-8-2018-0250_EN.pdf on 15.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2018b, September 12). European Parliament resolution of 12 September 2018 on a proposal calling on the Council to determine, pursuant to Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union, the existence of a clear risk of a serious breach by Hungary of the values on which the Union is founded 2017/2131(INL). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0340_EN.html on 18.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2019, November). Briefing – protecting the rule of law in the EU: existing mechanisms and possible improvements. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/642280/EPRS_BRI(2019)642280_EN.pdf on 04.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2022a, May 5). European Parliament resolution of 5 May 2022 on ongoing hearings under Article 7(1) TEU regarding Poland and Hungary. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2022-0204_EN.html on 22.04.2023
• European Parliament (EP). (2022b, September 15). MEPs: Hungary can no longer be considered a full democracy. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220909IPR40137/meps-hungary-can-no-longer-be-considered-a-full-democracy on 15.11.2022
• European Parliament (EP). (2023, January). Briefing – rule of law-related ‘super milestones’ in the recovery and resilience plans of Hungary and Poland. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/741581/IPOL_BRI(2023)741581_EN.pdf on 19.04.2023
• European Union (EU). (1992, July 29). Treaty on European Union. Official Journal of the European Communities, C 191/1.
• European Union (EU). (2012a, October 26). Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union. Official Journal of the European Union, C 326/13.
• European Union (EU). (2012b, October 26). Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Official Journal of the European Union, C 326/47.
• European Union (EU). (2020, December 22). Regulation 2020/2092 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on a general regime of conditionality for the protection of the Union budget. Official Journal of the European Union, L 433 I/1.
• Everett, J. (2021). Poland and Hungary: democratic backsliding and the shifting European political landscape. RUDN Journal of Political Science, 23(3), 394-406. DOI: 10.22363/2313-1438-2021-23-3-394-406.
• Freedom House. (2017). Freedom in the world 2017: Hungary. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/hungary/freedom-world/2017 on 14.03.2023
• Freedom House. (2021). Freedom in the world 2021: Hungary Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/hungary/freedom-world/2021 on 29.03.2023
• Freedom House. (2023). Freedom in the world 2023: Hungary. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/hungary/freedom-world/2023 on 29.03.2023
• Freund, D. (2023, January 31). Poland and Hungary: more than two thirds of EU funds frozen – background. Freund. Retrieved from https://danielfreund.eu/poland-and-hungary-more-than-two-thirds-of-eu-funds-frozen-background/?lang=en on 19.04.2023
• Gandhi, J. (2019). The institutional roots of democratic backsliding. The Journal of Politics, 81(1), 11-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/700653
• Grabowska-Moroz, B. and Kochenov, D. (2020, September 11). EU rule of law: the state of play following the debates surrounding the 2019 Commission’s communication. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3690975
• Griffen, S. (2020). Hungary: a lesson in media control. British Journalism Review, 31(1), 57-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956474820910071
• Güneş, A. (2016). Avrupa Birliği’nin temel değerleri üzerine. TBB Dergisi, (125), 307-340.
• Havasi, V. (2022). Power and powerlessness of the civil society in Hungarian illiberal democracy between 2010-2022. Politics in Central Europe, 18(4), 499-529. https://doi.org/10.2478/pce-2022-0022
• Hegedüs, D. (n.d.) European Parliament’s Article 7 against Hungary not a nuclear option, but the right step. The German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMF). Retrieved from https://www.gmfus.org/news/european-parliaments-article-7-against-hungary-not-nuclear-option-right-step on 16.04.2023
• Herman, L.E. (2015). Re-evaluating the post-communist success story: party elite loyalty, citizen mobilization and the erosion of Hungarian democracy. European Political Science Review, 8(2), 251-284. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773914000472
• Holesch, A. and Kyriazi, A. (2022). Democratic backsliding in the European Union: the role of the Hungarian-Polish coalition. East European Politics, 38(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2020.1865319
• Iusmen, I. (2015). EU leverage and democratic backsliding in Central and Eastern Europe: the case of Romania. Journal of Common Market Studies, 53(3), 593-608. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12193
• Jenne, E.K. and Mudde, C. (2012). Hungary’s illiberal turn: can outsiders help?. Journal of Democracy, 23(3), 147-155.
• Karl, T.L. (1995). The hybrid regimes of Central America. Journal of Democracy, 6(3), 72-86.
• Kelemen, R.D. (2017). Europe’s other democratic deficit: national authoritarianism in Europe’s democratic union. Government and Opposition, 52(2), 211-238. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2016.41
• Kelemen, R.D. (2020). The European Union’s authoritarian equilibrium. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(3), 481-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1712455
• Kochenov, D. and Pech, L. (2015, July 3). Upholding the rule of law in the EU: on the Commission’s ‘pre-Article 7 procedure’ as a timid step in the right direction. EUI Working Papers (2015/24). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2625602
• Kovacs, B.A. (2014). Nations in transit 2014: Hungary. Freedom House. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/NIT14_Hungary_final.pdf on 28.02.2023
• Kovacs, Z. and Vida, G. (2015). Geography of the new electoral system and changing voting patterns in Hungary. Acta Geobalcanica, 1(2), 55-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.18509/AGB.2015.06
• Mahony, H. (2014, July 28). Orban wants to build “illiberal state”. EUobserver. Retrieved from https://euobserver.com/eu-political/125128 on 20.11.2022
• Makszimov, V. (2021, November 17). “Voter tourism”: new Hungarian residency law raises risk of electorate manipulation, NGO warn. Euractiv. Retrieved from https://www.euractiv.com/section/elections/news/voter-tourism-new-hungarian-residency-law-raises-risk-of-electorate-manipulation-ngos-warn/ on 30.11.2022
• Meijers, M.J. and van der Veer, H. (2019). MEP responses to democratic backsliding in Hungary and Poland. An analysis of agenda-setting and voting behaviour. Journal of Common Market Studies, 57(4), 838-856. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12850
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Poland. (n.d.). Visegrad Group. Retrieved from https://www.gov.pl/web/diplomacy/visegrad-group#:~:text=The%20Visegrad%20Group%20(V4)%20is,traditions%2C%20culture%2C%20and%20values on 19.06.2023
• Molnar, V. (2020). Civil Society in an illiberal democracy: government-friendly NGOs, “foreign agents”, and uncivil publics. In J.M. Kovacs and B. Trencsenyi, (Eds.), Brave New Hungary: Mapping the “System of National Cooperation (51-72). London: Lexington Books.
• Nagle, J. (1997). Ethnos, demos and democratization: a comparison of the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland, Democratization. 4(2), 28-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510349708403514
• Pech, L. (2022). The rule of law as a well-established and well-defined principle of EU law. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 14, 107-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40803-022-00176-8
• Pinzari, S. (2014). The European Union as a diplomatic actor: the role of Visegrad countries in shaping the EU’s foreign policy. In J. Dyduch, M. Michalewska-Pawlak and R. Murphy (Eds.), European Union as a Global Actor (157-173). Warsaw: ASPRA.
• Pridham, G. (2005). Designing democracy: EU enlargement and regime change in post-communist Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Repucci, S. and Slipowitz, A. (2022). Freedom in the world 2022: the Global expansion of authoritarian rule. Freedom House. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2022/global-expansion-authoritarian-rule on 02.03.2023
• Scheppele, K.L. (2015). Understanding Hungary’s constitutional revolution. In A. von Bogdandy and P. Sonnevend (Eds.), Constitutional crisis in the European constitutional area: theory, law and politics in Hungary and Romania (111-124). London: Hart/Beck.
• Scheppele, K.L. (2022). How Viktor Orban wins. Journal of Democracy, 33(3), 45-61.
• Schimmelfennig, F. and Sedelmeier, U. (2020). The Europeanization of Eastern Europe: the external incentives model revisited. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(6), 814-833. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1617333.
• Schumpeter, J.A. (2003). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. London and New York: Routledge.
• Sedelmeier, U. (2017). Political safeguards against democratic backsliding in the EU: the limits of material sanctions and the scope of social pressure. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(3), 337-351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2016.1229358
• Sitter, N. and Bakke, E. (2019, August 28). Democratic backsliding in the European Union. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1476
• Sodaro, M. (2008). Comparative Politics: A Global Introduction. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Soyaltın Colella, D. (2020). Avrupa Birliği’nde hukukun üstünlüğü krizi üye ve aday ülkelere yönelik önleyici politikaların siyaseti. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 38, 69-85. https://doi.org/10.30794/pausbed.650339
• Staudinger, I. (2022). The rise and fall of rule of law conditionality. European Papers, 7(2), 721-737. Doi: 10.15166/2499-8249/595
• Szeles, A. (2015, June 24). “Semi-consolidated democracy”: Freedom House downgrades Hungary. Liberties. Retrieved from https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/semi-consolidated-democracy-freedom-house-downgrades-hungary-sn-5459/24410 on 03.03.2023
• Tanacs, G. and Huey, N. (2020, June 16). Hungary ends emergency powers, but new law opens up potential to re-apply them. Euronews. Retrieved from https://www.euronews.com/2020/06/16/hungary-debates-end-to-emergency-powers-but-new-law-opens-up-potential-to-re-apply-them on 29.03.2023
• The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). (2012, November 6). C-286/12 - Commission v Hungary. Retrieved from https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-286/12 on 19.04.2023
• The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). (2020a, October 6). C-66/18 - Commission v Hungary (Enseignement supéeieur). Retrieved from https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-66/18 on 19.04.2023
• The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). (2020b, June 18). C-78/18 - Commission v Hungary (transparency of associations). Retrieved from https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-78/18 on 19.04.2023
• The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). (2020c, December 17). C-808/18 - Commission v Hungary (Accueil des demandeurs de protection internationale). Retrieved from https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-808/18 on 19.04.2023
• Varga, J. (2019, November 22). Judit Varga: facts you always wanted to know about rule of law but never dared to ask. Euronews. Retrieved from https://www.euronews.com/2019/11/19/judit-varga-facts-you-always-wanted-to-know-about-rule-of-law-hungary-view on 12.04.2023
• Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Institute. (2020). Autocratization Surges – Resistance Grows Democracy Report 2020. Retrieved from https://v-dem.net/documents/14/dr_2020_dqumD5e.pdf on 22.02.2023
• Von Bogdandy, A. and Lacnyi J. (2020, July 21). Suspension of EU funds for member states breaching the rule of law – a dose of tough love needed?. Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law & International Law (MPIL) Research Paper (2020-24). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3638175
• Wahl, T. (2020, December 8). Council Launches Rule of Law Dialogue. The European Criminal Law Associations’ Forum. Retrieved from https://eucrim.eu/news/council-launches-rule-law-dialogue/#:~:text=On%20the%20basis%20of%20the,meeting%20on%2013%20October%202020 on 08.04.2023
• Waldner, D. and Lust, E. (2018). Unwelcome change: coming to terms with democratic backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science, 21, 93-113. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628
• Wilkin, P. (2018). The rise of “illiberal” democracy: the Orbanization of Hungarian political culture. Journal of World-Systems Research, 24(1), 5-42. https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.2018.716
• Wilms, G. (2017). Protecting fundamental values in the European Union through the rule of law: Articles 2 and 7 TEU from a legal, historical and comparative angle. Florence: European University Institute.
• Wolkenstein, F. (2022). European political parties’ complicity in democratic backsliding. Global Constitutionalism, 11(1), 55-82. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045381720000386