The role of consumer anxiety in the explanation of impulsive and compulsive buying relationship: A quantitative study during the Covid 19 pandemic

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 47, 153 - 174, 30.06.2022

Fatih Şahin , Mehmet Ozan Karahan

https://doi.org/10.31795/baunsobed.936733

Cited By: 2

Öz

In the global context, the COVID-19 outbreak has created an adverse effect on the economy, health, and social life and causes anxiety and uncertainty. The sudden changes in the behaviour of consumers caused by the threat of pandemics and the measures taken to prevent the pandemic can cause an increase in the anxiety levels of the consumers. Increased levels of anxiety in individuals during pandemics can turn into a more difficult situation than managing the outbreak itself and is considered an important factor in explaining the impulsive and compulsive purchasing behaviour of consumers. The goal of the study is to analyse the effect of the general COVID-19 outbreak-related anxiety on consumer anxiety and impulsive buying, furthermore, explaining consumer anxiety, escapism behaviour, consumers' compulsive buying behaviour, and impulsive buying behaviour relationships. In the data collection process, The researcher(s) employed an electronic questionnaire and collected data from 282 valid sources. The structural equation modelling technique was conducted in testing research assumptions. The research findings show that the COVID-19 outbreak anxiety has an increasing effect on consumer anxiety level and impulsive buying behaviour tendency. Besides, impulsive buying behaviour tendency has also positively affected consumer anxiety. Increased levels of consumer anxiety by both factors caused an increase in consumer escapism and compulsive buying behaviour.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Consumer behavior, Covid anxiety, Consumer anxiety, Escapism, Compulsive buying, Impulsive buying behaviour

Dürtüsel ve kompulsif satın alma arasındaki ilişkinin açıklanmasında tüketici kaygısının rolü: Covid19 Salgını döneminde nicel bir araştırma

Öz

Covid19 salgını küresel kapsamda ekonomi, sağlık ve sosyal yaşamı olumsuz yönde etkilemekte ve korku, endişe ve belirsizliğe neden olmaktadır. Salgın tehdidi ve salgının engellenmesine yönelik olarak alınan tedbirlerin tüketicilerin davranışlarında neden olduğu ani değişimler tüketicilerin kaygı düzeylerinde de artışa neden olabilmektedir. Salgın dönemlerinde bireylerin kaygı düzeyinde gerçekleşen artış salgının kendisini yönetmekten daha zor bir hale dönüşebilmekte ve tüketicilerin dürtüsel ve kompulsif satın alma davranışlarının açıklanmasında önemli bir faktör olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Covid19 salgının bireylerde neden olduğu hissedilen kaygının, tüketici kaygısı ve dürtüsel satın alma üzerindeki etkisini incelerken; tüketici kaygısı, kaçış ve son olarak bireylerin kompulsif ve dürtüsel satın alma davranışları arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklamayı amaçlamaktadır. Veri toplama aşamasında çevrim içi anket aracılığı ile 282 geçerli veri toplanılmıştır. Araştırma hipotezlerinin test edilmesinde yapısal eşitlik modellemesi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonuçları, Covid19 salgınından kaynaklı kaygının tüketici kaygı ve tüketici dürtüsel satın alma davranışı eğiliminde artışa neden olmaktadır. Bunun yanı sıra dürtüsel satın alma eğilimi de tüketici kaygısını arttırıcı bir etkiye sahiptir. Bu her iki faktör tarafından artan tüketici kaygısı ise hem tüketici kaçış davranışlarında hem de kompulsif satın alma davranışlarında artışa neden olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kaçış, Tüketici davranışları, Covid kaygısı, Tüketici kaygısı, Kompulsif satın alma davranışı, Dürtüsel satın alma davranışı

Kaynakça

• Ahn, J., ve Kwon, J. (2020). The role of trait and emotion in cruise customers’ impulsive buying behavior: An empirical study. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 1-14. 10.1080/0965254X.2020.1810743.
• Aliçavuşoğlu, Ç., ve Boyraz, E. (2019). Takıntılı tüketim: Tek ürüne yönelik kompulsif satın alma davranışı. MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 8(2), 1800 - 1814.
• Amos, C., Holmes, G. R., ve Keneson, W. C. (2014). A meta-analysis of consumer impulse buying. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 21(2), 86-97.
• Arkin, R. M., ve Rucks, L. (2007). Anxiety. R. F. Baumeister ve K. D. Vohs (Ed.). Encyclopedia of social psychology (Vol. 1. Social psychology) içinde (ss. 42-43). SAGE Publications Ltd., City Road, London.
• Atulkar, S., ve Kesari, B. (2018). Role of consumer traits and situational factors on impulse buying: Does gender matter? International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 46(4), 386-405. 10.1108/IJRDM-12-2016-0239.
• Balabanis, G. (2002). The relationship between lottery ticket and scratch‐card buying behaviour, personality and other compulsive behaviours. Journal of Consumer Behaviour: An International Research Review, 2(1), 7-22.
• Başlar, E. K., ve Bozbay, Z. (2019). Kişilik özellikleri, materyalizm ve statü tüketiminin kompulsif satın alma üzerindeki etkilerinin İncelenmesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (37), 333-345.
• Beatty, S. E., ve Ferrell, M. E. (1998). Impulse buying: Modeling its precursors. Journal of retailing, 74(2), 169-191.
• Bellini, S., Cardinali, M. G., ve Grandi, B. (2017). A structural equation model of impulse buying behaviour in grocery retailing. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 36, 164-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.02.001.
• Blumberg, S. H., ve Izard, C. E. (1986). Discriminating patterns of emotions in 10-and 11-yr-old children's anxiety and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(4), 852–857.
• Bristow, N. K. (2010). “It's as bad as anything can be”: Patients, identity, and the influenza pandemic. Public Health Reports, 125(3_suppl), 134-144.
• Burgess, A., ve Horii, M. (2012). Risk, ritual and health responsibilisation: Japan’s ‘safety blanket’of surgical face mask‐wearing. Sociology of Health & Illness, 34(8), 1184-1198.
• Chang, W.-L., Lu, L.-C., Su, H.-J., Lin, T. A., ve Chang, K.-Y. (2011). Mediating effect of buying motives between physical vanity and online compulsive buying. African Journal of Business Management, 5(8), 3289-3296.
• Chen, Y. F., ve Wang, R. Y. (2016). Are humans rational? Exploring factors influencing impulse buying intention and continuous impulse buying intention. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 15(2), 186-197.
• Cheng, C. (2004). To be paranoid is the standard? Panic responses to sars outbreak in the Hong Kong special administrative region. Asian Perspective, 28(1), 67-98.
• Cherrier, H., ve Ponnor, T. (2010). A study of hoarding behavior and attachment to material possessions. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 13(1), 8-23. 10.1108/13522751011013945.
• Choi, E. P. H., Hui, B. P. H., ve Wan, E. Y. F. (2020). Depression and anxiety in hong kong during Covid-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10), 3740-3751.
• Çelik, S., ve Köse, G. G. (2021). Mediating effect of intolerance of uncertainty in the relationship between coping styles with stress during pandemic (Covid-19) process and compulsive buying behavior. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 110, 110321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110321.
• Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., ve Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2016). Sosyal bilimler için çok değişkenli istatistik: Spss ve Lisrel uygulamaları (4 Ed.). Pegem Akademi Yayınları, Ankara.
• D'Antoni, J. J. S., ve Shenson, H. L. (1973). Impulse buying revisited: A behavioral typology. Journal of retailing, 49(1), 63–76.
• Darrat, A. A., Darrat, M. A., ve Amyx, D. (2016). How impulse buying influences compulsive buying: The central role of consumer anxiety and escapism. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 31, 103-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.03.009.
• Deng, S., Wang, W., Xie, P., Chao, Y., ve Zhu, J. (2020). Perceived severity of Covid-19 and post-pandemic consumption willingness: The roles of boredom and sensation-seeking. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(2437), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567784.
• Dowling, G. R., ve Staelin, R. (1994). A model of perceived risk and intended risk-handling activity. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1), 119-134.
• Duygun, A., ve Şen, E. (2020). Evaluation of consumer purchasing behaviors in the Covid-19 pandemic period in the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Pazarlama Teorisi ve Uygulamaları Dergisi, 6(1), 45-68.
• Edwards, E. A. (1993). Development of a new scale for measuring compulsive buying behavior. Financial Counseling and Planning, 4(1), 67-84.
• Evans, A. (2001). This virtual life: Escapism and simulation in our media world. Vision, London.
• Faber, R. J. (2004). Self-control and compulsive buying. T. Kasser ve T. Kanner (Ed.). Psychology and consumer culture: The struggle for a good llfe in a materialistic world içinde (ss. 169-189). American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
• Faber, R. J., ve O'Guinn, T. C. (1992). A clinical screener for compulsive buying. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 459-469. https://doi.org/10.1086/209315.
• Fernandes, B., Biswas, U. N., Mansukhani, R. T., Casarín, A. V., ve Essau, C. A. (2020). The impact of Covid-19 lockdown on internet use and escapism in adolescents. Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes, 7(3), 59-65.
• Gao, W., Liu, Z., ve Li, J. (2017). How does social presence influence SNS addiction? A belongingness theory perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 347-355.
• Gardner, M. P., ve Rook, D. W. (1988). Effects of impulse purchases on consumers' affective states. M. J. Houston (Ed.), NA - Advances in Consumer Research (Vol. 15) içinde (ss. 127-130). Association for Consumer Research, Provo, Utah.
• Giorgetta, C., Grecucci, A., Zuanon, S., Perini, L., Balestrieri, M., Bonini, N., vd. (2012). Reduced risk-taking behavior as a trait feature of anxiety. Emotion, 12(6), 1373–1383.
• Glass, T. A., ve Schoch-Spana, M. (2002). Bioterrorism and the people: How to vaccinate a city against panic. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 34(2), 217-223.
• Grewal, D., Motyka, S., ve Levy, M. (2018). The evolution and future of retailing and retailing education. Journal of Marketing Education, 40(1), 85-93.
• Gudykunst, W. B., ve Hammer, M. R. (1988). Strangers and hosts: An uncertainty reduction based theory of intercultural adaptation. Y. Kim ve W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.). Cross-cultural Adaptation: Current Approaches içinde (ss. 106-139). Sage Publishing, Newbury Park, CA.
• Hofmann, W., Strack, F., ve Deutsch, R. (2008). Free to buy? Explaining self-control and impulse in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18(1), 22-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2007.10.005.
• Honigsbaum, M. (2009). Living with Enza: The forgotten story of Britain and the great flu pandemic of 1918. Macmillan, Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y.
• Hsin Chang, H., ve Wang, H. W. (2011). The moderating effect of customer perceived value on online shopping behaviour. Online Information Review, 35(3), 333-359. 10.1108/14684521111151414.
• Huang, Y., ve Zhao, N. (2020). Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during Covid-19 outbreak in China: A web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112954.
• Hullett, C. R., ve Witte, K. (2001). Predicting intercultural adaptation and isolation: Using the extended parallel process model to test anxiety/uncertainty management theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25(2), 125-139.
• Islam, T., Pitafi, A. H., Arya, V., Wang, Y., Akhtar, N., Mubarik, S., vd. (2021). Panic buying in the Covid-19 pandemic: A multi-country examination. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 59, 102357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102357.
• Iyer, G. R., Blut, M., Xiao, S. H., ve Grewal, D. (2020). Impulse buying: A meta-analytic review. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48(3), 384-404.
• Jaspal, R., Lopes, B., ve Lopes, P. (2020). Fear, social isolation and compulsive buying in response to Covid-19 in a religiously diverse UK sample. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 23(5), 427-442.
• Jefferson, T., Foxlee, R., Del Mar, C., Dooley, L., Ferroni, E., Hewak, B., vd. (2008). Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses: Systematic Review. Bmj, 336, 77-80.
• Jones, M. A., Reynolds, K. E., Weun, S., ve Beatty, S. E. (2003). The product-specific nature of impulse buying tendency. Journal of Business Research, 56(7), 505-511.
• Jung Chang, H., Yan, R.-N., ve Eckman, M. (2014). Moderating effects of situational characteristics on impulse buying. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 42(4), 298-314. 10.1108/IJRDM-04-2013-0074.
• Kacen, J. J., Hess, J. D., ve Walker, D. (2012). Spontaneous selection: The influence of product and retailing factors on consumer impulse purchases. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 19(6), 578-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2012.07.003.
• Kanadiya, M. K., ve Sallar, A. M. (2011). Preventive behaviors, beliefs, and anxieties in relation to the swine flu outbreak among college students aged 18–24 years. Journal of Public Health, 19(2), 139-145.
• Karahan, M. O., ve Söylemez, C. (2019). Tüketicilerin kompulsif satın alma davranışını etkileyen faktörler: Bir uygulama. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(3), 1961-1975.
• Karahan, M. O., ve Şahin, F. (2020). Tüketicilerin itkisel (dürtüsel) satın alma davranışına mağaza ortamının ve kişilik özelliklerinin etkisi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (41), 274-292.
• Karamustafa, K., ve Biçkes, D. M. (2003). Kredi kartı sahip ve kullanıcılarının kredi kartı kullanımlarını değerlendirmeye yönelik bir araştırma: Nevşehir örneği. Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1(15), 91-113.
• Kellett, S., ve Bolton, J. V. (2009). Compulsive buying: A cognitive–behavioural model. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 16(2), 83-99.
• Kok, G., Peters, G. J. Y., Kessels, L. T. E., Ten Hoor, G. A., ve Ruiter, R. A. C. (2018). Ignoring theory and misinterpreting evidence: The false belief in fear appeals. Health Psychology Review, 12(2), 111-125. 10.1080/17437199.2017.1415767.
• Lazarus, R. S., ve Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company, New York, NY.
• Lee, K., Kim, H., ve Vohs, K. D. (2011). Stereotype threat in the marketplace: Consumer anxiety and purchase intentions. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(2), 343-357.
• Lee, S. A. (2020). Coronavirus anxiety scale: A brief mental health screener for Covid-19 related anxiety. Death Studies, 44(7), 393-401.
• Lopes, B., Bortolon, C., ve Jaspal, R. (2020). Paranoia, hallucinations and compulsive buying during the early phase of the Covid-19 outbreak in the united kingdom: A preliminary experimental study. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113455.
• Luo, X. (2005). How does shopping with others influence impulsive purchasing? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(4), 288-294.
• Martin, B. A. (2004). Using the imagination: Consumer evoking and thematizing of the fantastic imaginary. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 136-149.
• McIntyre, N., ve Roggenbuck, J. W. (1998). Nature/person transactions during an outdoor adventure experience: A multi-phasic analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(4), 401-422.
• McLeod, S. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology, 1, 1-8.
• Mohan, G., Sivakumaran, B., ve Sharma, P. (2013). Impact of store environment on impulse buying behavior. European Journal of Marketing, 47(10), 1711-1732.
• Müller, A., Mitchell, J. E., Crosby, R. D., Cao, L., Johnson, J., Claes, L., vd. (2012). Mood states preceding and following compulsive buying episodes: An ecological momentary assessment study. Psychiatry Research, 200(2–3), 575-580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.015.
• Naeem, M. (2020). Understanding the customer psychology of impulse buying during Covid-19 pandemic: Implications for retailers. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 49(3), 377-393. 10.1108/IJRDM-08-2020-0317.
• Neria, Y., ve Sullivan, G. M. (2011). Understanding the mental health effects of indirect exposure to mass trauma through the media. Jama, 306(12), 1374-1375.
• O'Guinn, T. C., ve Faber, R. J. (1989). Compulsive buying: A phenomenological exploration. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(2), 147-157.
• Öhman, A. (2008). Fear and anxiety: Overlaps and dissociations. M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, ve L. F. Barrett (Ed.). Handbook of emotions (3 Bs.) içinde (ss. 709-729). The Guilford Press, Spring Street, New York, NY.
• Palan, K. M., Morrow, P. C., Trapp, A., ve Blackburn, V. (2011). Compulsive buying behavior in college students: The mediating role of credit card misuse. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(1), 81-96.
• Park, H. J., ve Burns, L. D. (2005). Fashion orientation, credit card use, and compulsive buying. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(3), 135-141.
• Peteet, J. R. (2020). Covid-19 anxiety. Journal of Religion and Health, 59, 2203-2204.
• Pettigrew, E. (1983). The silent enemy: Canada and the deadly flu of 1918. Western Producer Prairie Books, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
• Roberts, J. A., ve Jones, E. (2001). Money attitudes, credit card use, and compulsive buying among american college students. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 35(2), 213-240.
• Roberts, J. A., ve Roberts, C. (2012). Stress, gender and compulsive buying among early adolescents. Young Consumers, 13(2), 113-123. 10.1108/17473611211233440.
• Rook, D. W. (1987). The buying impulse. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(2), 189-199.
• Rook, D. W., ve Fisher, R. J. (1995). Normative influences on impulsive buying behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(3), 305-313.
• Rook, D. W., ve Gardner, M. P. (1993). In the mood: Impulse buying’s affective antecedents. Research in Consumer Behavior, 6(7), 1-28.
• Roseman, I., ve Evdokas, A. (2004). Appraisals cause experienced emotions: Experimental evidence. Cognition and Emotion, 18(1), 1-28.
• Rubin, G. J., Amlôt, R., Page, L., ve Wessely, S. (2009). Public perceptions, anxiety, and behaviour change in relation to the swine flu outbreak: Cross sectional telephone survey. BMJ, 339(b2651), 2-8. doi:10.1136/bmj.b2651.
• Russell, C. A., Norman, A. T., ve Heckler, S. E. (2004). The consumption of television programming: Development and validation of the connectedness scale. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 150-161.
• Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., ve Ruiz, P. (2014). Kaplan & sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11 Bs.). Wolters Kluwer, Market Street, Philadelphia.
• Saqib, A., Mishra, M., ve Javed, H. M. U. (2021). The impact of mall personality and shopping value on shoppers' well-being: Moderating role of compulsive shopping. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Preprint, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-07-2020-0272.
• Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., ve Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23-74.
• Shepperd, J. A., Grace, J., Cole, L. J., ve Klein, C. (2005). Anxiety and outcome predictions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 267-275.
• Shultz, J. M., Baingana, F., ve Neria, Y. (2015). The 2014 ebola outbreak and mental health: Current status and recommended response. Jama, 313(6), 567-568.
• Shultz, J. M., Espinel, Z., Flynn, B. W., Hoffman, Y., ve Cohen, R. E. (2007). Deep prep: All-hazards disaster behavioral health training. DEEP Center, Miami, FL.
• Smith, G. D., Ng, F., ve Watson, R. (2020). “Masking the evidence”: Perspectives of the Covid‐19 pandemic. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 29(19-20), 3580-3583.
• Sneath, J. Z., Lacey, R., ve Kennett-Hensel, P. A. (2014). Chronic negative circumstances and compulsive buying: Consumer vulnerability after a natural disaster. Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 24(2), 129-147.
• SteelFisher, G. K., Blendon, R. J., Ward, J. R., Rapoport, R., Kahn, E. B., ve Kohl, K. S. (2012). Public response to the 2009 influenza a H1N1 pandemic: A polling study in five countries. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 12(11), 845-850.
• Stern, H. (1962). The significance of impulse buying today. Journal of Marketing, 26(2), 59-62. https://doi.org/10.2307/1248439.
• Taylor, S. (2019). The psychology of pandemics: Preparing for the next global outbreak of infectious disease. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne.
• Taylor, S., ve Asmundson, G. J. (2004). Treating health anxiety: A cognitive-behavioral approach. Guilford Press, Spring Street, New York, N.Y.
• Thombs, B. D., Bonardi, O., Rice, D. B., Boruff, J. T., Azar, M., He, C., vd. (2020). Curating evidence on mental health during Covid-19: A living systematic review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 133(June), 110113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110113.
• Tian, Z., Kim, B.-Y., ve Bae, M.-J. (2020). A study on the effect of wearing masks on stress response. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 13(4), 807-813.
• Tokgöz, E. (2019). Hedonik ve faydaci tüketimin dürtüsel ve kompulsif satin alma üzerinde etkisi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (35), 93-108.
• Wald, P. (2008). Contagious: Cultures, carriers, and the outbreak narrative. Duke University Press.
• Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C. S., vd. (2020). Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (Covid-19) epidemic among the general population in china. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1729-1754.
• Wang, Y., McKee, M., Torbica, A., ve Stuckler, D. (2019). Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Social Science & Medicine, 240, 112552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112552.
• Wheaton, M. G., Abramowitz, J. S., Berman, N. C., Fabricant, L. E., ve Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Psychological predictors of anxiety in response to the H1N1 (swine flu) pandemic. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(3), 210-218.
• WHO, W. H. O. (2021). Who coronavirus disease (Covid-19) dashboard. 21 Mart 2021 tarihinde https://covid19.who.int/ adresinden erişildi.
• Wu, K. K., Chan, S. K., ve Ma, T. M. (2005). Posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depression in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 18(1), 39-42.
• Xiao, H., Zhang, Z., ve Zhang, L. (2020). A diary study of impulsive buying during the Covid-19 pandemic. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01220-2.
• Xiong, J., Lipsitz, O., Nasri, F., Lui, L. M. W., Gill, H., Phan, L., vd. (2020). Impact of Covid-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 277, 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001.
• Yi, S. (2012). Shame-proneness as a risk factor of compulsive buying. Journal of Consumer Policy, 35(3), 393-410. 10.1007/s10603-012-9194-9.
• Zung, W. W. (1971). A rating instrument for anxiety disorders. Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation and Liaison Psychiatry, 12(6), 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(71)71479-0.