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From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries

Yıl 2024, Sayı: 111, 159 - 192, 31.10.2024
https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.11107

Öz

The decline of the Mongol Empire and its successor states led to anarchy in Central Eurasia from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This era saw the fall of the Timurids and the Ming Dynasty and the rise of new regional powers, including the Kazakhs and Zunggars in Central Asia. Externally, the Manchus, and Russia began influencing Central Asian geopolitics. Meanwhile, significant political, cultural, and scientific developments were taking place in Europe, alongside the rise of colonialism. Although these trends in Europe began to affect Central Asia, the regional powers of the time focused more on European technological innovations than on ideas of sovereignty and statehood. With the acceleration of political and culturalinteractions between the East and the West, mapping and related innovations reached Central Asia and soon became symbols of political hegemony. This strategy, adopted by China’s Ming and Manchu Qing dynasties and Russia, was efficiently utilized in the struggle for dominance in Central Asia. This article examines the last attempts of the regional Kazakh and Zunggar polities as independent states to become the hegemon power in the region within the framework of the role of mapping in Russian and Manchu colonial advances, which has not been sufficiently studied yet. Adopting an interdisciplinary approach, this study employs historical methodologies, as well as international relations terminologies and theoretical frameworks.

Kaynakça

  • Altunkaya, Mustafa. “Bazı Şiî Kaynaklarda Tasavvuf ve İrfân Kavramlarının Analizi.” Turkish Studies, vol. 11, no. 5, 2016, pp. 1-16.
  • Ash, Eric H. “Navigation Techniques and Practice in the Renaissance.” History of Cartography, ed. David Woodward, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 2007, pp. 509-512.
  • Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi. Osmanlı Arşivi, Nâme-i Hümâyun Defterleri, 6/219. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri.
  • Benoist, Michel. “Qianlong Shisan Pai Tu 乾隆十三排圖.” In 中國大百科全書 [Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu, by Jincheng Ren, 337. Beijing: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1992.
  • Bergholz, Fred Walter. The Partition of the Steppe: The Struggle of the Russians, Manchus, and the Zunghar Mongols for Empire in Central Asia, 1619-1758: A Study in Power Politics. Peter Lang, 1993.
  • Cattaneo, Angelo. “World Cartography in the Jesuit Mission in China.
  • Cosmography, Theology, Pedagogy.” Education for New Times: Revisiting Pedagogical Models in the Jesuit Tradition, ed. Arthur K. Wardega, Macau Ricci Institute, 2014, pp. 71-86.
  • Chang, Jianhua. “清代中俄恰克图边境贸易研究的新收获 [Qingdai Zhong E Qiaketu Bianjing Maoyi Yanjiu de Shouhuo].” Qingshi Yanjiu, no. 1, 2004, p. 123.
  • Chen, Da. 南洋华侨与闽粤社会 (Nanyang Huaqiao Yu Minyue Shehui). Shangwu Yinshuguan, 2011.
  • Chonov, Efim Chonovich. Kalmıki v Russkoi Armii XVII v., XVIII v. i 1812 god: Ocherk, Stat’i, Biografiya. Kalmytskoe Knizhnoe İzdvo, 2006.
  • Craib, Raymond B. “Cartography and Power in the Conquest and Creation of New Spain.” Latin American Research Review, vol. 35, no. 1, 2000, pp. 7-36, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2692056.
  • Dilke, Oswald Ashwald. W. “The Culmination of Greek Cartography in Ptolemy. The History of Cartography.” Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, ed. David Woodward, University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 177-200.
  • Duglat, Mirza Haydar. Tarih-i Reşidî: Geride Bıraktıklarımızın Hikayesi. Trans. Osman Karatay, Selenge Yayınları, 2006.
  • Ergalieva, Jannat, and Nurhat Şakuzadaulı. Kazak Kültürü. Al-Farabi Kitabevi, 2000, pp. 300-317.
  • Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe, and David Woodward. “Maps and Exploration in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries.” History of Cartography, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 2007, pp. 749-752.
  • Haines, R. Spencer. Defying the Nomadic versus Sedentary Dichotomy: The Rise and Fall of Zunghar Self-Strengthening Campaigns in Central Eurasia (17th-18th Centuries). PhD thesis, Australian National University, openresearchrepository.anu.edu.au, http://hdl.handle.net/1885/260714.
  • Homann, Johann Baptist. Generalis totius Imperii Moscovitici (General Map of the Entire Muscovite Empire). 1720. Harvard University, Harvard Map Collection, G7000_1722_H6.
  • Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the Islamic World. Yale University Press, 2018.
  • Kalan, Ekrem. Cungar Hanlığı’nın Siyasi Tarihi. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 2008.
  • Kenzheakhmet, Nurlan. Eurasian Historical Geography as Reflected in Geographical Literature and in Maps from the 13th to the Mid-17th Centuries. OSTASIEN Verlag, 2021.
  • Khodarkovsky, Micheal. Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
  • Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz. “Tibet in the Crimea? Polish Embassy to the Kalmyks of 1653 and a Project of an Anti-Muslim Alliance.” Poloniae Historica, no. 114, 2016, pp. 231-253.
  • Kurt, Hasan. “Orta Asya’da İslâm’ın Yayılışı: İstekle mi Zorla mı?” Orta Asya’da İslam-Temsilden Fobiye, ed. M. S. Kafkasyalı, vol. 1, Hoca Ahmet Yesevi Uluslararası Türk-Kazak Üniversitesi, 2012, pp. 254-255.
  • Li, Zhian. 元史暨中古史论稿 [Yuanshi Ji Zhonggushi Lungao]. Renmin Chubanshe, 2013.
  • Neumann, Iver B., and Einar Wigen. The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BCE–2017 CE. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
  • Özdemir, Emin. “Sovyet Dönemi Kazakistan’da Komünist Partisi’nin Tarih Yazımı ve Tarih Eğitimine Etkisi.” Sovyet Tarih Yazımı ve Kazakistan Tarihinin Meseleleri, ed. Abdulvahap Kara and Zeynep Yaman, TDBB, 2016, p. 141.
  • Perdue, Peter C. “Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia.” The International History Review, vol. 20, no. 2, 1998, pp. 263-286. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40108221.
  • Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press, 2005.
  • Poppe, Nicholas. “Renat’s Kalmuck Maps.” Imago Mundi, vol. 12, 1955, pp. 157-159. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150111.
  • Renat, Johan Gustaf. Charta Öfwer Landet Songarski Kalmucki Med Ther under Lydande Kottoner [Kopia Av Carl Browall Efter J. G. Renats Kopia Av Kalmuckisk Originalkarta Renat 1/A]. 1740, Uppsala University Library, http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-90021.
  • Renat, Johan Gustaf. [Map of Russia]. 1737. Uppsala University Library, https://web.archive.org/web/200.707.16171006/http://www.kb.se/kart_bibl/Kartor/Rysslandskartor/Renat_B_1000px.jpg.
  • Shan, Shiyuan, and Qiwen Wang, editors. 清代建築大事年表 [Qingdai Jianzhu Dashi Nianbiao]. Zijincheng Chubanshe, 2009.
  • Standen, Naomi. Unbounded Loyalty: Frontier Crossings in Liao China. University of Hawaii Press, 2007.
  • Wittfogel, Karl A. “Oriental Society in Transition with Special Reference to Pre-Communist and Communist China.” The Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4, 1955, pp. 469-478. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2941830.
  • Xiao, Qiqing. 内北国而外中国 蒙元史研究 [Neibeiguo Erwai Zhongguo Mengyuanshi Yanjiu]. 2nd ed., vol. 2, Zhonghua Shuju, 2010.
  • Yazıcı, Necati. İlk Türk-İslam Devletleri Tarihi. Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1992, p. 13.
  • Zarakol, Ayşe. Before the West:The Rise and Fall of Eastern World Orders. Cambridge University Press, 2022.

Cengizlilerden Modern Devlete: 17. ve 18. Yüzyıllarda Merkezî Avrasya’da Jeopolitik ve Egemenlik

Yıl 2024, Sayı: 111, 159 - 192, 31.10.2024
https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.11107

Öz

Moğol İmparatorluğunun ve halefi olan devletlerin dağılması, 16. ve 18. yüzyıllar arasında Merkezî Avrasya’da bir anarşiye yol açtı. Bu dönemde Timurlular ve Ming Hanedanı yıkılırken Kazaklar ve Cungarlar gibi yeni bölgesel güçler yükseldi. Dışarıdan ise Mançular ve Ruslar, Orta Asya’nın jeopolitiğini etkilemeye başladı. Bu dönemde Avrupa’da da önemli bir kısım siyasi, kültürel ve bilimsel gelişmeler yaşanmakta, sömürgecilik yükselmekteydi. Avrupa’daki bu gelişmeler bir şekilde Orta Asya’yı da etkilemeye başlamış olsa da dönemin bölgesel güçleri, egemenlik ve devlet anlayışlarından ziyade Avrupa’nın teknik yeniliklerine odaklanmışlardı. Batı ile Doğu arasındaki siyasi ve kültürel etkileşimin ivme kazanmasıyla haritalama ile birlikte diğer bazı yenilikler, Orta Asya’ya ulaştı ve siyasi hegemonya için bir sembol hâline geldi. Çin’in Ming ve Mançu Qing hanedanları ile Rusya tarafından benimsenen bu strateji, Orta Asya’daki hâkimiyet mücadelesinde etkin bir şekilde kullanıldı. Bu makale, bölgesel Kazak ve Cungar siyasal yapılarının bağımsız devletler olarak hegemon güç olma yolundaki son çabalarını, şimdiye kadar yeterince çalışılmamış olan Rus ve Mançu sömürgeci ilerlemelerinde haritalamanın rolü çerçevesinde incelemektedir. Disiplinlerarası yaklaşımı benimseyen bu çalışmada, tarihsel metodolojilerin yanı sıra uluslararası ilişkiler terminolojileri ve teorik çerçeveler de kullanılacaktır.

Destekleyen Kurum

The authors were supported in preparing this article by the project titled ‘Historical Geography of Central Asia’ (BR21882416) funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Kazakhstan. Additionally, one of the authors, Kubilay Atik, is also supported by the TÜBİTAK project number 1059B192203092.

Kaynakça

  • Altunkaya, Mustafa. “Bazı Şiî Kaynaklarda Tasavvuf ve İrfân Kavramlarının Analizi.” Turkish Studies, vol. 11, no. 5, 2016, pp. 1-16.
  • Ash, Eric H. “Navigation Techniques and Practice in the Renaissance.” History of Cartography, ed. David Woodward, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 2007, pp. 509-512.
  • Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi. Osmanlı Arşivi, Nâme-i Hümâyun Defterleri, 6/219. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri.
  • Benoist, Michel. “Qianlong Shisan Pai Tu 乾隆十三排圖.” In 中國大百科全書 [Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu, by Jincheng Ren, 337. Beijing: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1992.
  • Bergholz, Fred Walter. The Partition of the Steppe: The Struggle of the Russians, Manchus, and the Zunghar Mongols for Empire in Central Asia, 1619-1758: A Study in Power Politics. Peter Lang, 1993.
  • Cattaneo, Angelo. “World Cartography in the Jesuit Mission in China.
  • Cosmography, Theology, Pedagogy.” Education for New Times: Revisiting Pedagogical Models in the Jesuit Tradition, ed. Arthur K. Wardega, Macau Ricci Institute, 2014, pp. 71-86.
  • Chang, Jianhua. “清代中俄恰克图边境贸易研究的新收获 [Qingdai Zhong E Qiaketu Bianjing Maoyi Yanjiu de Shouhuo].” Qingshi Yanjiu, no. 1, 2004, p. 123.
  • Chen, Da. 南洋华侨与闽粤社会 (Nanyang Huaqiao Yu Minyue Shehui). Shangwu Yinshuguan, 2011.
  • Chonov, Efim Chonovich. Kalmıki v Russkoi Armii XVII v., XVIII v. i 1812 god: Ocherk, Stat’i, Biografiya. Kalmytskoe Knizhnoe İzdvo, 2006.
  • Craib, Raymond B. “Cartography and Power in the Conquest and Creation of New Spain.” Latin American Research Review, vol. 35, no. 1, 2000, pp. 7-36, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2692056.
  • Dilke, Oswald Ashwald. W. “The Culmination of Greek Cartography in Ptolemy. The History of Cartography.” Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, ed. David Woodward, University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 177-200.
  • Duglat, Mirza Haydar. Tarih-i Reşidî: Geride Bıraktıklarımızın Hikayesi. Trans. Osman Karatay, Selenge Yayınları, 2006.
  • Ergalieva, Jannat, and Nurhat Şakuzadaulı. Kazak Kültürü. Al-Farabi Kitabevi, 2000, pp. 300-317.
  • Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe, and David Woodward. “Maps and Exploration in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries.” History of Cartography, vol. 3, University of Chicago Press, 2007, pp. 749-752.
  • Haines, R. Spencer. Defying the Nomadic versus Sedentary Dichotomy: The Rise and Fall of Zunghar Self-Strengthening Campaigns in Central Eurasia (17th-18th Centuries). PhD thesis, Australian National University, openresearchrepository.anu.edu.au, http://hdl.handle.net/1885/260714.
  • Homann, Johann Baptist. Generalis totius Imperii Moscovitici (General Map of the Entire Muscovite Empire). 1720. Harvard University, Harvard Map Collection, G7000_1722_H6.
  • Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the Islamic World. Yale University Press, 2018.
  • Kalan, Ekrem. Cungar Hanlığı’nın Siyasi Tarihi. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 2008.
  • Kenzheakhmet, Nurlan. Eurasian Historical Geography as Reflected in Geographical Literature and in Maps from the 13th to the Mid-17th Centuries. OSTASIEN Verlag, 2021.
  • Khodarkovsky, Micheal. Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
  • Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz. “Tibet in the Crimea? Polish Embassy to the Kalmyks of 1653 and a Project of an Anti-Muslim Alliance.” Poloniae Historica, no. 114, 2016, pp. 231-253.
  • Kurt, Hasan. “Orta Asya’da İslâm’ın Yayılışı: İstekle mi Zorla mı?” Orta Asya’da İslam-Temsilden Fobiye, ed. M. S. Kafkasyalı, vol. 1, Hoca Ahmet Yesevi Uluslararası Türk-Kazak Üniversitesi, 2012, pp. 254-255.
  • Li, Zhian. 元史暨中古史论稿 [Yuanshi Ji Zhonggushi Lungao]. Renmin Chubanshe, 2013.
  • Neumann, Iver B., and Einar Wigen. The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BCE–2017 CE. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
  • Özdemir, Emin. “Sovyet Dönemi Kazakistan’da Komünist Partisi’nin Tarih Yazımı ve Tarih Eğitimine Etkisi.” Sovyet Tarih Yazımı ve Kazakistan Tarihinin Meseleleri, ed. Abdulvahap Kara and Zeynep Yaman, TDBB, 2016, p. 141.
  • Perdue, Peter C. “Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia.” The International History Review, vol. 20, no. 2, 1998, pp. 263-286. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40108221.
  • Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press, 2005.
  • Poppe, Nicholas. “Renat’s Kalmuck Maps.” Imago Mundi, vol. 12, 1955, pp. 157-159. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150111.
  • Renat, Johan Gustaf. Charta Öfwer Landet Songarski Kalmucki Med Ther under Lydande Kottoner [Kopia Av Carl Browall Efter J. G. Renats Kopia Av Kalmuckisk Originalkarta Renat 1/A]. 1740, Uppsala University Library, http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-90021.
  • Renat, Johan Gustaf. [Map of Russia]. 1737. Uppsala University Library, https://web.archive.org/web/200.707.16171006/http://www.kb.se/kart_bibl/Kartor/Rysslandskartor/Renat_B_1000px.jpg.
  • Shan, Shiyuan, and Qiwen Wang, editors. 清代建築大事年表 [Qingdai Jianzhu Dashi Nianbiao]. Zijincheng Chubanshe, 2009.
  • Standen, Naomi. Unbounded Loyalty: Frontier Crossings in Liao China. University of Hawaii Press, 2007.
  • Wittfogel, Karl A. “Oriental Society in Transition with Special Reference to Pre-Communist and Communist China.” The Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 4, 1955, pp. 469-478. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2941830.
  • Xiao, Qiqing. 内北国而外中国 蒙元史研究 [Neibeiguo Erwai Zhongguo Mengyuanshi Yanjiu]. 2nd ed., vol. 2, Zhonghua Shuju, 2010.
  • Yazıcı, Necati. İlk Türk-İslam Devletleri Tarihi. Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1992, p. 13.
  • Zarakol, Ayşe. Before the West:The Rise and Fall of Eastern World Orders. Cambridge University Press, 2022.
Toplam 37 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Ulus ve Bölgenin Kültürel Çalışmaları, Tarihi Coğrafya, Bölgesel Çalışmalar, Türk Dünyası Çalışmaları, Orta Asya Tarihi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Kubilay Atik 0000-0001-7657-6645

Suat Beylur 0000-0002-1508-8477

Nurlan Kenzheakhmet Bu kişi benim 0000-0003-3299-1243

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Ekim 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 8 Mayıs 2024
Kabul Tarihi 11 Ekim 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Sayı: 111

Kaynak Göster

APA Atik, K., Beylur, S., & Kenzheakhmet, N. (2024). From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Bilig(111), 159-192. https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.11107
AMA Atik K, Beylur S, Kenzheakhmet N. From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Bilig. Ekim 2024;(111):159-192. doi:10.12995/bilig.11107
Chicago Atik, Kubilay, Suat Beylur, ve Nurlan Kenzheakhmet. “From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia During the 17th and 18th Centuries”. Bilig, sy. 111 (Ekim 2024): 159-92. https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.11107.
EndNote Atik K, Beylur S, Kenzheakhmet N (01 Ekim 2024) From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Bilig 111 159–192.
IEEE K. Atik, S. Beylur, ve N. Kenzheakhmet, “From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries”, Bilig, sy. 111, ss. 159–192, Ekim 2024, doi: 10.12995/bilig.11107.
ISNAD Atik, Kubilay vd. “From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia During the 17th and 18th Centuries”. Bilig 111 (Ekim 2024), 159-192. https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.11107.
JAMA Atik K, Beylur S, Kenzheakhmet N. From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Bilig. 2024;:159–192.
MLA Atik, Kubilay vd. “From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia During the 17th and 18th Centuries”. Bilig, sy. 111, 2024, ss. 159-92, doi:10.12995/bilig.11107.
Vancouver Atik K, Beylur S, Kenzheakhmet N. From Chinggisid to Modern State: Geopolitics and Sovereignty in Central Eurasia during the 17th and 18th Centuries. Bilig. 2024(111):159-92.

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