LEGO Robotik Öğretim Uygulamalarının Kabulü Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışmaları
Yıl 2018,
, 191 - 214, 28.02.2018
Barış Çukurbaşı
,
Gamze Yavuz Konokman
,
Bekir Güler
,
Seçil Kartal
Öz
Çalışma kapsamında öğretmen adaylarının LEGO Robotik
öğretim uygulamalarını benimseme ve kabul etme durumlarını belirlemek için
“LEGO Robotik Öğretim Uygulamalarının Kabulü” ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi
amaçlanmıştır. Ölçek geliştirme çalışması 2016-2017 öğretim yılında Bartın
Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi 3. ve 4. sınıflarında öğrenim gören 360 öğretmen
adayıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ölçek deneme formu öğretmen adaylarına
uygulanmadan önce çalışma grubunun tamamına LEGO Mindstorms EV3 ve LEGO
Mindstorms EV3 setinin öğrenme öğretme süreçlerinde nasıl kullanılabileceğine
ilişkin temalarda video gösterimiyle tanıtım yapılmıştır. Madde analizi
çalışmaları korelasyona dayalı analiz yöntemiyle gerçekleştirilmiş; ölçeğin
faktör yapısı açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi çalışmalarıyla ortaya
konmuştur. Açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi çalışmaları ölçeğin tek
faktörlü dört bileşenli bir yapıya sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Ölçek
bileşenleri algılanan fayda, algılanan kullanım kolaylığı, tutum ve kullanıma yönelik
niyet olarak adlandırılmıştır. Ölçeğin bütününe ilişkin hesaplanan Cronbach
Alpha güvenirlik katsayısı .956; ölçeğin bileşenlerine ilişkin Cronbach Alfa güvenirlik katsayıları ise
sırasıyla .924; .929; .834 ve .915
olarak hesaplanmıştır. Açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi çalışmaları ile
hesaplanan Cronbach Alpha değerleri LEGO robotik öğretim uygulamalarını kabulü
ölçeğinin geçerli ve güvenilir bir veri toplama aracı olduğunu göstermektedir.
Kaynakça
- Adams Becker, S., Freeman, A., Giesinger Hall, C., Cummins, M. ve Yuhnke, B. (2016). NMC/CoSN horizon report: 2016 K-12 edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
Alkan, C. (2011). Eğitim Teknolojisi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
- Anderson, J. C. ve Gerbing, D.W. (1984). The effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness of fit indices for maximum likelihood comfirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49, 155‐173, Doi: 10.1007/BF02294170.
- Aufderheide, D., Krybus, W. ve Witkowski, U. (2012). Experiences with LEGO MINDSTORMS as an Embedded and Robotics Platform within the Undergraduate Curriculum. Advances in Autonomous Robotics. s. 185-196. Bristol: Springer.
- Beisser, S. R. (2005). An Examination of gender differences in elementary constructionist classrooms using Lego/Logo instruction. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research, 22(3-4), s. 7-19.
- Benitti, F. B. V. (2012). Exploring the educational potential of robotics in school: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 58, s. 978-988. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.006.
- Castledine, A. ve Chalmers, C. (2011). LEGO robotics: An authentic problem solving tool? Design and Technology Education: An International Journal, 16(3), s. 19-27.
- Catlin, D. (2012). Maximising the effectiveness of educational robotics through the use of assessment fot learning methodologies. Proceedings of 3rd International workshop teaching Robotics, Teaching with Robotics, Integrating Robotics in School Curriculum, (s. 2-11). Riva del Garda (Trento, Italy). 09.11.2016 tarihinde http://www.terecop.eu/TRTWR2012/trtwr2012_submission_01.pdf adresinden alındı
- Chesney, T. (2006). An acceptance model for useful and fun information systems. An Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans in ICT Environments, 2(2), s. 225-235. doi:dx.doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.2006520
- Coakes, S. J. (2005). SPSS: Analysis without anguish: Version 12.0 for Windows. Melbourne: John Wiley and Sons.
- Cole, D. A. (1987). Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, s. 1019-1031.
- Dastjerdi, N. B. (2016). Factors affecting ICT adoption among distance education students based on the technology acceptance model - A case study at a distance education university in Iran. International Education Studies, 9(2), s. 73-80.
- Davis, F. (1989). Perceived usefullness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of ınformation technology. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 13(3), s. 319-340.
- Davis, F. (1993). User acceptance of information technology: system characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 38(3), s. 475-487.
- Duyan, V. ve Gelbal, S. (2008). Barnett çocuk sevme ölçeği’ni Türkçe’ye uyarlama çalışması. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(148), 40-48.
- Erbaş, Ç. ve Demirer, V. (2015). Eğitimde sanal ve arttırılmış gerçeklik uygulamaları. B. Akkoyunlu, A. İşman ve H. F. Odabaşı içinde, Eğitim Teknolojileri Okumaları 2015. s. 131-148. Ankara: TOJET - The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology.
- Gable, R. K. (1986). Instrument development in the affective domain. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing.
- Heerink, M., Krose, B. J., Evers, V. ve Wielinga, B. J. (2006). Studying the acceptance of a robotic agent by elderly users. International Journal of ARM, 7(3), s. 33-43.
- Hsia, J. (2016). The effects of locus of control on university students' mobile learning adoption. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 28, s. 1-17. doi:10.1007/s12528-015-9103-8
- Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A. ve Hall, C. (2016). NMC horizon report: 2016 higher education edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
- Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V. ve Freeman, A. (2015). NMC horizon report: 2015 higher education edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
- Karagiorgi, Y. ve Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design: Potential and limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 8(1), s. 17-27.
- Kazez, H. ve Genç, Z. (2016). İlkokul matematik öğretiminde yeni bir yaklaşım: Lego MoretoMath. Journal of Instructional Technologies & Teacher Education, 5(2), s. 59-71.
- Kazimoglu, C., Kiernan, M., Bacon, L. ve Mackinnon, L. (2012). A serious game for developing computational thinking and learning introductory computer programming. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, s. 1991-1999. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.938
- Khee, C.M., Wei, G.W. ve Jamaluddin, S.A. (2014). Students’ perception towards lecture capture based on the technology acceptance model. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 123, s. 461-469.
- Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. NY: Guilford Publications, Inc.
- Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., Kereluik, K., Shin, T. S. ve Graham, C. R. (2014). The technological pedagogical content knowledge framework. J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen ve M. J. Bishop içinde, Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (Fourth Edition b., s. 101-111). New York: Springer.
- McKnight, L. (2015). Still in the LEGO (LEGOS) room: female teachers designing curriculum around girls’ popular culture for the coeducational classroom in Australia. Gender and Education, 27(7), s. 909-927. doi:10.1080/09540253.2015.1096920
- MEB. (2016). Bilgisayar Bilimi Dersi Öğretim Programı Kur 1 - Kur 2. Ankara.
- Murillo, A. C., Mosteo, A. R., Castellanos, J. A. ve Montano, L. (2011). A practical mobile robotics engineering course using LEGO Mindstorms. Research and Education in Robotics - EUROBOT 2011. s. 221-235. Praque: Springer.
- Murphy, K. R. ve Davidshofer, C. O. (1998). Pschological testing principles and applications. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
- NMC. (2017). NMC horizon report preview: 2017 higher education edition. The New Media Consortium. 20.12.2016 tarihinde http://cdn.nmc.org/media/2017-nmc-horizon-report-he-preview.pdf adresinden alındı
- Noar, S. M. (2003). The role of structural equation modeling in scale development. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10(4), s. 622-647.
- Ortiz, A. (2015). Examining students' proportional reasoning strategy levels as evidence of the ımpact of an ıntegrated LEGO robotics and mathematics learning experience. Journal of Technology Education, 26(2), s. 46-69.
- Ospennikova, E., Ershov, M. ve Iljin, I. (2015). Educational robotics as an inovative educational technology. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 214, s. 18-26.
- Özdoğru, E. (2013). Fiziksel olaylar öğrenme alanı için LEGO program tabanlı fen ve teknoloji eğitiminin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, bilimsel süreç becerilerine ve fen ve teknoloji dersine yönelik tutumlarına etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
- Pala, F. ve Erdem, M. (2015). Çevrimiçi öğrenme ortamları ve katılım. B. Akkoyunlu, A. İşman ve H. F. Odabaşı içinde, Eğitim Teknolojileri Okumaları 2015. s. 213-232. Ankara: TOJET - The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology.
- Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On The Horizon, 9(5).
- Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, California: Corvin.
- Shih, B., Chen, C., Chen, C. ve Hsin, I. (2012). Using Lego NXT to explore scientific literacy in disaster prevention and rescue systems. Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, 64(1), s. 153-171. doi:10.1007/s11069-012-0233-2
- Shih, B., Shih, C., Li, C., Chen, T., Chen, Y. ve Chen, C. (2011). Elementary school student's acceptance of Lego NXT: The technology acceptance model, a preliminary investigation. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, s. 5057-5063. doi:10.5897/IJPS11.708
- Somyürek, S. (2015). An effective educational tool construction kits for fun and meaningful learning. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25, s. 25-41.
- Spector, J. M. (2016). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives (Second Edition b.). New York: Rouhledge.
- Strawhacker, A. ve Bers, M. (2015). "I want my robot to look for food": Comparing kindergartner's programming comprehension using tangible, graphic, and hybrid user interfaces. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25, s. 293-319.
- Sungur, K. (2013). Yöntem olarak mühendislik-dizayna ve ders materyali olarak legolara öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarının bakış açılarının incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Erciyes Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
- Sümer, N. (2000). Yapısal eşitlik modelleri. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 3(6), 49-74.
- Tabachnick, B. G. ve Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Needham Heights, Allyn & Bacon.
- Teo, T. (2010). A path analysis of pre-service teachers’ attitudes to computer use: Applying and extending the technology acceptance model in an educational context. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(1), s. 65-79.
- Uğur Erdoğmuş, F. ve Çağıltay, K. (2013). Türkiye'de eğitim teknolojileri alanında yayımlanan yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinde genel eğilimler. K. Çağıltay ve Y. Göktaş içinde, Öğretim Teknolojilerinin Temelleri: Teoriler, Araştırmalar, Eğilimler (s. 279-290). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
- Walsh, W. B. ve Betz, N. E. (1995). Tests and Assessment. Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Developing The Acceptance Scale Of LEGO Robotics Instructional Practices: Validity And Reliability Studies
Yıl 2018,
, 191 - 214, 28.02.2018
Barış Çukurbaşı
,
Gamze Yavuz Konokman
,
Bekir Güler
,
Seçil Kartal
Öz
In the scope of the study it was aimed to develop the
acceptance scale of LEGO robotics instructional practices to determine the
prospective teachers’ acception of LEGO robotics instructional practices. Scale
development study was carried out with the help of 360 prospective teachers
having been educated at Bartin University during the 2016-2017 academic
semester. Before testing form of the scale was applied to the prospective
teachers, they had been introduced on LEGO Mindstorms EV3 set and how to
integrate these sets into learning and teaching process. Item analysis studies
were done with the correlational analysis method and the factor structure of
the scale was determined with the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis
methods. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis studies indicated
the scale had one factor and four components. The components of the scale was
called as perceived benefit, perceived easy use, intention to use and attitude.
Cronbach Alpha reliability parameter of the whole scale was found as .956 and Cronbach Alpha
reliability parameters of the components of the scale were found respectively
as .924; .929; .834, .915. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis
studies as well as Cronbach Alpha parameters indicated the acceptance scale of
LEGO robotics instructional practices has been a reliable and valid data
collection tool.
Kaynakça
- Adams Becker, S., Freeman, A., Giesinger Hall, C., Cummins, M. ve Yuhnke, B. (2016). NMC/CoSN horizon report: 2016 K-12 edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
Alkan, C. (2011). Eğitim Teknolojisi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
- Anderson, J. C. ve Gerbing, D.W. (1984). The effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness of fit indices for maximum likelihood comfirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49, 155‐173, Doi: 10.1007/BF02294170.
- Aufderheide, D., Krybus, W. ve Witkowski, U. (2012). Experiences with LEGO MINDSTORMS as an Embedded and Robotics Platform within the Undergraduate Curriculum. Advances in Autonomous Robotics. s. 185-196. Bristol: Springer.
- Beisser, S. R. (2005). An Examination of gender differences in elementary constructionist classrooms using Lego/Logo instruction. Computers in the Schools: Interdisciplinary Journal of Practice, Theory, and Applied Research, 22(3-4), s. 7-19.
- Benitti, F. B. V. (2012). Exploring the educational potential of robotics in school: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 58, s. 978-988. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.006.
- Castledine, A. ve Chalmers, C. (2011). LEGO robotics: An authentic problem solving tool? Design and Technology Education: An International Journal, 16(3), s. 19-27.
- Catlin, D. (2012). Maximising the effectiveness of educational robotics through the use of assessment fot learning methodologies. Proceedings of 3rd International workshop teaching Robotics, Teaching with Robotics, Integrating Robotics in School Curriculum, (s. 2-11). Riva del Garda (Trento, Italy). 09.11.2016 tarihinde http://www.terecop.eu/TRTWR2012/trtwr2012_submission_01.pdf adresinden alındı
- Chesney, T. (2006). An acceptance model for useful and fun information systems. An Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans in ICT Environments, 2(2), s. 225-235. doi:dx.doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.2006520
- Coakes, S. J. (2005). SPSS: Analysis without anguish: Version 12.0 for Windows. Melbourne: John Wiley and Sons.
- Cole, D. A. (1987). Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, s. 1019-1031.
- Dastjerdi, N. B. (2016). Factors affecting ICT adoption among distance education students based on the technology acceptance model - A case study at a distance education university in Iran. International Education Studies, 9(2), s. 73-80.
- Davis, F. (1989). Perceived usefullness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of ınformation technology. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 13(3), s. 319-340.
- Davis, F. (1993). User acceptance of information technology: system characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 38(3), s. 475-487.
- Duyan, V. ve Gelbal, S. (2008). Barnett çocuk sevme ölçeği’ni Türkçe’ye uyarlama çalışması. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(148), 40-48.
- Erbaş, Ç. ve Demirer, V. (2015). Eğitimde sanal ve arttırılmış gerçeklik uygulamaları. B. Akkoyunlu, A. İşman ve H. F. Odabaşı içinde, Eğitim Teknolojileri Okumaları 2015. s. 131-148. Ankara: TOJET - The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology.
- Gable, R. K. (1986). Instrument development in the affective domain. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing.
- Heerink, M., Krose, B. J., Evers, V. ve Wielinga, B. J. (2006). Studying the acceptance of a robotic agent by elderly users. International Journal of ARM, 7(3), s. 33-43.
- Hsia, J. (2016). The effects of locus of control on university students' mobile learning adoption. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 28, s. 1-17. doi:10.1007/s12528-015-9103-8
- Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A. ve Hall, C. (2016). NMC horizon report: 2016 higher education edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
- Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V. ve Freeman, A. (2015). NMC horizon report: 2015 higher education edition. Austin, Texas: The New Media Consortium.
- Karagiorgi, Y. ve Symeou, L. (2005). Translating constructivism into instructional design: Potential and limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 8(1), s. 17-27.
- Kazez, H. ve Genç, Z. (2016). İlkokul matematik öğretiminde yeni bir yaklaşım: Lego MoretoMath. Journal of Instructional Technologies & Teacher Education, 5(2), s. 59-71.
- Kazimoglu, C., Kiernan, M., Bacon, L. ve Mackinnon, L. (2012). A serious game for developing computational thinking and learning introductory computer programming. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, s. 1991-1999. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.938
- Khee, C.M., Wei, G.W. ve Jamaluddin, S.A. (2014). Students’ perception towards lecture capture based on the technology acceptance model. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 123, s. 461-469.
- Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. NY: Guilford Publications, Inc.
- Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., Kereluik, K., Shin, T. S. ve Graham, C. R. (2014). The technological pedagogical content knowledge framework. J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen ve M. J. Bishop içinde, Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (Fourth Edition b., s. 101-111). New York: Springer.
- McKnight, L. (2015). Still in the LEGO (LEGOS) room: female teachers designing curriculum around girls’ popular culture for the coeducational classroom in Australia. Gender and Education, 27(7), s. 909-927. doi:10.1080/09540253.2015.1096920
- MEB. (2016). Bilgisayar Bilimi Dersi Öğretim Programı Kur 1 - Kur 2. Ankara.
- Murillo, A. C., Mosteo, A. R., Castellanos, J. A. ve Montano, L. (2011). A practical mobile robotics engineering course using LEGO Mindstorms. Research and Education in Robotics - EUROBOT 2011. s. 221-235. Praque: Springer.
- Murphy, K. R. ve Davidshofer, C. O. (1998). Pschological testing principles and applications. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
- NMC. (2017). NMC horizon report preview: 2017 higher education edition. The New Media Consortium. 20.12.2016 tarihinde http://cdn.nmc.org/media/2017-nmc-horizon-report-he-preview.pdf adresinden alındı
- Noar, S. M. (2003). The role of structural equation modeling in scale development. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10(4), s. 622-647.
- Ortiz, A. (2015). Examining students' proportional reasoning strategy levels as evidence of the ımpact of an ıntegrated LEGO robotics and mathematics learning experience. Journal of Technology Education, 26(2), s. 46-69.
- Ospennikova, E., Ershov, M. ve Iljin, I. (2015). Educational robotics as an inovative educational technology. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 214, s. 18-26.
- Özdoğru, E. (2013). Fiziksel olaylar öğrenme alanı için LEGO program tabanlı fen ve teknoloji eğitiminin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, bilimsel süreç becerilerine ve fen ve teknoloji dersine yönelik tutumlarına etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
- Pala, F. ve Erdem, M. (2015). Çevrimiçi öğrenme ortamları ve katılım. B. Akkoyunlu, A. İşman ve H. F. Odabaşı içinde, Eğitim Teknolojileri Okumaları 2015. s. 213-232. Ankara: TOJET - The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology.
- Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On The Horizon, 9(5).
- Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, California: Corvin.
- Shih, B., Chen, C., Chen, C. ve Hsin, I. (2012). Using Lego NXT to explore scientific literacy in disaster prevention and rescue systems. Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, 64(1), s. 153-171. doi:10.1007/s11069-012-0233-2
- Shih, B., Shih, C., Li, C., Chen, T., Chen, Y. ve Chen, C. (2011). Elementary school student's acceptance of Lego NXT: The technology acceptance model, a preliminary investigation. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, s. 5057-5063. doi:10.5897/IJPS11.708
- Somyürek, S. (2015). An effective educational tool construction kits for fun and meaningful learning. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25, s. 25-41.
- Spector, J. M. (2016). Foundations of educational technology: Integrative approaches and interdisciplinary perspectives (Second Edition b.). New York: Rouhledge.
- Strawhacker, A. ve Bers, M. (2015). "I want my robot to look for food": Comparing kindergartner's programming comprehension using tangible, graphic, and hybrid user interfaces. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 25, s. 293-319.
- Sungur, K. (2013). Yöntem olarak mühendislik-dizayna ve ders materyali olarak legolara öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarının bakış açılarının incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Erciyes Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
- Sümer, N. (2000). Yapısal eşitlik modelleri. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 3(6), 49-74.
- Tabachnick, B. G. ve Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Needham Heights, Allyn & Bacon.
- Teo, T. (2010). A path analysis of pre-service teachers’ attitudes to computer use: Applying and extending the technology acceptance model in an educational context. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(1), s. 65-79.
- Uğur Erdoğmuş, F. ve Çağıltay, K. (2013). Türkiye'de eğitim teknolojileri alanında yayımlanan yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinde genel eğilimler. K. Çağıltay ve Y. Göktaş içinde, Öğretim Teknolojilerinin Temelleri: Teoriler, Araştırmalar, Eğilimler (s. 279-290). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
- Walsh, W. B. ve Betz, N. E. (1995). Tests and Assessment. Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.