Examining the Concept of Empowering Leadership in the Context of Physical Education and Sports Teachers: A Qualitative Research

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 1 Sayı: 2, 23 - 41, 31.12.2023

İsmail Karataş , Latif Aydos

Öz

The concept of empowerment emerged due to the need for an organizational concept that could increase employee productivity in response to fundamental technological and commercial changes in organizations in the private and public sectors. The concept of empowerment is expressed as employees feeling useful and discovering their talents at the end of the work done. It is also defined as delegating authority/transferring power to others (employees). In this context, educational organizations, like other organizations, have a dynamic structure. Mobility and transformation constantly occur in the education and training process. Therefore, within the scope of educational organizations, it is thought that the most critical factors for schools to achieve organizational goals are strong school leaders and teachers. In this regard, it is understood that adopting a management approach aimed at empowering school principals and teachers, depending on complex environmental and organizational situations, can produce positive results. In this context, teacher empowerment is predicted to be an excellent way to create strong and effective school teams. Teacher empowerment is often used to describe how teachers are given a say in decision-making processes regarding teaching and learning in their schools. Teacher empowerment involves opportunities for teachers to engage in power structures and develop their sense of responsibility/self-determination in their schools. Within the framework of the teaching profession, physical education and sports teachers have a unique role in educational activities and in ensuring students' cognitive, emotional, social, physiological and motoric development (holistic development). Accordingly, the research was conducted to examine the concept of empowering leadership in the context of physical education and sports teachers. Many relevant national and international publications were examined in this qualitative research using the literature review approach. As a result of this literature review, it was concluded that when physical education and sports teachers are empowered, various positive individual and organizational outcomes can be achieved effectively and efficiently. For this reason, it is thought that it is crucial to create a school climate that will enable physical education and sports teachers to display behaviours that will empower them.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Empowerment, Empowering leadership, Teacher, Physical education and sports teacher, Teacher empowerment

Güçlendirici Liderlik Kavramının Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Öğretmenleri Bağlamında İncelenmesi: Nitel Bir Araştırma

Öz

Güçlendirme kavramı, özel ve kamu sektörlerindeki organizasyonlarda temel teknolojik ve ticari değişikliklere göre çalışan üretkenliğini artırabilecek bir örgütsel kavrama ihtiyaç duyulması neticesinde ortaya çıkmıştır. Güçlendirme kavramı, yapılan işin sonunda çalışanların faydalı olduklarını hissetmeleri ve yeteneklerini keşfetmeleri olarak ifade edilmektedir. Ayrıca yetki devri/gücü başkalarına (çalışanlara) devretme şeklinde de tanımlanmaktadır. Bu çerçevede, diğer örgütler gibi eğitim örgütleri de dinamik bir yapıya sahiptir. Eğitim-öğretim sürecinde sürekli bir şekilde hareketlilik ve dönüşüm meydana gelmektedir. Dolayısıyla eğitim örgütleri kapsamında okulların örgütsel amaçlara ulaşması amacıyla en önemli faktörlerin güçlü okul liderlerinin ve öğretmenlerin olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu doğrultuda karmaşık çevre ve örgüt durumlarına bağlı olarak okul müdürlerinin ve öğretmenlerin güçlendirilmesine yönelik bir yönetim anlayışının benimsenmesinin olumlu sonuçlar üretebileceği anlaşılmaktadır. Bu kapsamda öğretmen güçlendirmenin, okulda güçlü ve etkili ekiplerin oluşturulması için mükemmel bir yol olduğu öngörülmektedir. Öğretmen güçlendirme kavramı genellikle, öğretmenlere okullarında öğretme ve öğrenme ile ilgili karar alma süreçlerinde ne ölçüde söz hakkı verildiğini tanımlamak için kullanılmaktadır. Öğretmenlerin güçlendirilmesi, öğretmenlere güç yapılarına dahil olma ve okullarında sorumluluk/öz belirleme duygularını geliştirme fırsatları sağlamayı içermektedir. Öğretmenlik mesleği çerçevesinde beden eğitimi ve spor öğretmenleri; eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinde ve öğrencilerin bilişsel, duygusal, sosyal, fizyolojik ve motorik gelişimlerinin (bütünsel gelişim) sağlanmasında benzersiz bir role sahiptir. Buna göre araştırma, güçlendirici liderlik kavramının beden eğitimi ve spor öğretmenleri bağlamında incelenmesi amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Alanyazın taraması yaklaşımı kullanılan bu nitel araştırmada, ulusal ve uluslararası ilgili birçok yayın incelenmiştir. Bu alanyazın taraması neticesinde, beden eğitimi ve spor öğretmenleri güçlendirildiğinde, çeşitli bireysel ve örgütsel olumlu ürünlere etkin ve verimli bir şekilde ulaşılabildiği sonucuna varılmıştır. Bu nedenle beden eğitimi ve spor öğretmenlerini güçlendirecek davranışların sergilenmesini sağlayacak okul ikliminin oluşturulmasının oldukça önem arz ettiği düşünülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Güçlendirme, Güçlendirici liderlik, Öğretmen, Beden eğitimi ve spor öğretmeni, Öğretmen güçlendirme

Kaynakça

• Acaray, T. (2010). Ankara ili ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim okul müdürlerinin öğretmenleri güçlendirme örüntüleri. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Ahearne, M., Mathieu, J., & Rapp, A. (2005). To empower or not to empower your sales force? An empirical examination of the influence of leadership empowerment behavior on customer satisfaction and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 945–955. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.945.
• Amundsen, S., & Martinsen, Ø. L. (2014). Empowering leadership: Construct clarification, conceptualization, and validation of a new scale. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(3), 487-511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.009.
• Andrews, D. (2008). Working together to enhance school outcomes: An Australian case study of parallel leadership. Leading and Managing, 14(2), 45–60.
• Arnold, J. A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J. A., & Drasgow, F. (2000). The empowering leadership questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(3), 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3%3C249::AID-JOB10%3E3.0.CO;2-%23.
• Bakan, İ., Büyükbeşe, T., Erşahan, B., & Güngören, M. (2012). Güçlendiren liderlik ve personel güçlendirme ilişkisi: Teorik bir yaklaşım. Bingöl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2(4), 31-48.
• Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13(3), 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476.
• Balyer, A., Ozcan, K., & Yildiz, A. (2017). Teacher empowerment: School administrators’ roles. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 70, 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2017.70.1.
• Bandura, A. (2002). Social foundations of thought and action. In: D. Marks (Ed.), The Health Psychology: Reader (pp. 94-106), London: SAGE.
• Bartunek, J. M., & Spreitzer, G. M. (2006). The interdisciplinary career of a popular construct used in management: Empowerment in the late 20th century. Journal of Management Inquiry, 15(3), 255-273.
• Bauman, C. (2015). A refreshing perspective on teacher leadership: How teacher leaders effectively combine the use of autonomy and collaboration to enhance school improvement. Leading and Managing, 21(2), 46–59.
• Blase, J., & Blase, J. (1996). Facilitative school leadership and teacher empowerment: Teacher's perspectives. Social Psychology of Education, 1, 117–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02334729.
• Blase, J., & Blase, J. (2001). Empowering Teachers: What Successful Principals Can Do (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Blase, J., & Blase, J. (1997). The micropolitical orientation of facilitative school principals and its effects on teachers’ sense of empowerment. Journal of Educational Administration, 35(2), 138-164. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578239710161777.
• Blase, J., Blase, J., Anderson, G. L., & Dungan, S. (1995). Democratic Principals in Action: Eight Pioneers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Bogler, R., & Nir, A. E. (2012). The importance of teachers' perceived organizational support to job satisfaction: What's empowerment got to do with it?. Journal of Educational Administration, 50(3), 287-306. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578231211223310.
• Bogler, R., & Somech, A. (2004). Influence of teacher empowerment on teachers’ organizational commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(3), 277-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.02.003.
• Bolin, F. S. (1989). Empowering leadership. Teachers College Record, 91(1), 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818909100104.
• Bredeson, P. V. (1991). A profile of prospective principals: School leader for the next century. Education, 111(4), 510-515.
• Cafoğlu, Z. (1995). Okulların güçlendirilmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 4(4), 549-556.
• Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983.
• Cummings, G. G., MacGregor, T., Davey, M., Lee, H., Wong, C. A., Lo, E., Muise, M., & Stafford, E. (2010). Leadership styles and outcome patterns for the nursing workforce and work environment: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(3), 363-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.08.006.
• Davis, J., & Wilson, S. M. (2000). Principals' efforts to empower teachers: Effects on teacher motivation and job satisfaction and stress. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 73(6), 349-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098650009599442.
• Dee, J. R., Henkin, A. B., & Duemer, L. (2003). Structural antecedents and psychological correlates of teacher empowerment. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(3), 257-277. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230310474412.
• Detert, J. R., Burris, E. R., Harrison, D. A., & Martin, S. R. (2013). Voice Flows to and around leaders: Understanding when units are helped or hurt by employee voice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(4), 624–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839213510151.
• Dilekçi, Ü., & Sezgin Nartgün, Ş. (2020). Güçlendirici liderlik. In: K. Yılmaz (Ed.), Liderlik: Kuram – Araştırma – Uygulama (pp. 293-309). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.
• Duan, J., Li, C., Xu, Y., & Wu, C. H. (2017). Transformational leadership and employee voice behavior: A Pygmalion mechanism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38, 650-670. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2157.
• Edwards, J. L., Green, K. E., & Lyons, C. A. (2002). Personal empowerment, efficacy, and environmental characteristics. Journal of Educational Administration, 40(1), 67-86. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230210415652.
• Fernandez, S., & Moldogaziev, T. (2011). Empowering public sector employees to improve performance: Does it work?. The American Review of Public Administration, 41(1), 23-47.
• Glickman, C. (1993). Renewing America's Schools: A Guide for School-Based Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
• Goyne, J.. Padgett, D., Rowicki, M. A., & Triplitt, T. (1999). The Journey to Teacher Empowerment. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED434384.pdf. Accessed on 25 March 2023.
• Graham, G., Holt-Hale, S., & Parker, M. (2013). Children Moving: A Reflective Approach to Teaching Physical Education (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work Redesign. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
• Harpell, J. V., & Andrews, J. J. W. (2010). Administrative leadership in the age of inclusion: Promoting best practices and teacher empowerment. The Journal of Educational Thought, 44(2), 189–210.
• Hassan, S., Delart-Davis, L., & Jiang, Z. (2019). How empowering leadership reduces employee silence in public organizations. Public Administration, 97(1), 116-131.
• Heron, L., & Bruk-Lee, V. (2020). When empowered nurses are under stress: Understanding the impact on attitudes and behaviours. Stress and Health, 36(2), 147–159. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2905.
• Hill, F., & Huq, R. (2004). Employee empowerment: Conceptualizations, aims and outcomes. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 15(8), 1025-1041.
• Hill, N. S., Kang, J. H., & Seo, M. G. (2014). The interactive effect of leader–member exchange and electronic communication on employee psychological empowerment and work outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 25, 772–783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.04.006.
• Höpfl, H. (1994). Empowerment and the managerial prero gative. Empowerment in Organizations, 2(3), 39-44.
• Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Integrating motivational, social, and contextual work design features: A meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of the work design literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1332-1356.
• Iqbal, Q., Ahmad, N. H., Nasim, A., & Khan, S. A. R. (2020). A moderated-mediation analysis of psychological empowerment: Sustainable leadership and sustainable performance. Journal of Cleaner Production, 262, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121429.
• Ireland, R. D., & Webb, J. W. (2007). A cross-disciplinary exploration of entrepreneurship research. Journal of Management, 33(6), 891–927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307307643.
• Kanter, R. M. (1979). Power failure in management circuits. Harvard Business Review, 57(4), 65-75. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
• Kanter, R. M. (1993). Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
• Kaya, C., & Altınkurt, Y. (2018). Öğretmenlerin psikolojik sermayeleri ile tükenmişlik düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkide psikolojik ve yapısal güçlendirmenin rolü. Eğitim ve Bilim, 43(193), 63-78. Kıral, B. (2015). Lise yöneticilerinin öğretmenleri güçlendirmesi ve öğretmenlerin kayıtsızlık (sinizm) davranışı ile ilişkisi. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Kıral, B. (2019). Eğitim yönetiminde öğretmen güçlendirme. In: N. Cemaloğlu and M. Özdemir (eds), Eğitim Yönetimi (pp. 627-668), Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
• Klecker, B. J., & Loadman, W. E. (1998). Defining and measuring the dimensions of teacher empowerment in restructuring public schools. Education, 118(3), 358-370.
• Koçak, S. (2016). Ortaöğretim kurumlarındaki psikolojik sözleşme üzerinde güçlendirici liderlik davranışlarının rolü. Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Konan, N., & Çelik, O. T. (2017). Okul müdürlerinin güçlendirici liderliğine ilişkin öğretmen algısı. Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(1), 322-335.
• Laschinger H. K. S. (2008). Effect of empowerment on professional practice environments, work satisfaction, and patient care quality: Further testing the nursing worklife model. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 23(4), 322-330. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NCQ.0000318028.67910.6b.
• Laschinger, H., Almost, J., & Tuer-Hodes, D. (2003). Workplace empowerment and magnet hospital characteristics: Making the link. Journal of Nursing Administration, 33(7/8), 410 422. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200307000-00011.
• Laschinger, H., Finegan, J., & Shamian, J. (2001). Promoting nurses' health: Effect of empowerment on job strain and work satisfaction. Nursing Economics, 19(2), 42–52.
• Laschinger, H. K. S., Finegan, J. E., Shamian, J., & Wilk, P. (2004). A longitudinal analysis of the impact of workplace empowerment on work satisfaction: Workplace empowerment and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(4), 527–545. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.256.
• Lee, A. N., & Nie, Y. (2017). Teachers' perceptions of school leaders' empowering behaviours and psychological empowerment: Evidence from a Singapore sample. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 45(2), 260-283.
• Lee, J. C. K., Yin, H. B., Zhang, Z. H., & Jin, Y. L. (2011) Teacher empowerment and receptivity in curriculum reform in China. Chinese Education and Society, 44(4), 64-81. https://doi.org/10.2753/CED1061-1932440404.
• Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(3), 407-416. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407.
• Lieberman, A., & Friedrich, L. D. (2010). How Teachers Become Leaders: Learning from Practice and Research. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
• Lightfoot, S. L. (1986). On goodness in schools: Themes of empowerment. Peabody Journal of Education, 63(3), 9–28.
• Lin, Y. J. (2014). Teacher involvement in school decision making. Journal of Studies in Education, 4(3), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.5296/jse.v4i3.6179.
• Lumpkin, A. (2011). Introduction to Physical Education, Excercise Science, and Sport Studies (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Lyons, M. N., Green, R., Raiford, S., Tsemunhu, R., Pate, J., & Baldy, T. (2013). The relationship between teacher empowerment and school performance. National Teacher Education Journal, 6(2), 11–20.
• Maeroff, G. I. (1988). Teacher empowerment: A step toward professionalization. NASSP Bulletin, 72(511), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263658807251113.
• Mandigo, J. (2010). Presenting the evidence: Quality physical education for Canadian children and youth position statement by Physical and Health Education Canada. PHEnex Journal, 2(1), 1–19. https://ojs.acadiau.ca/index.php/phenex/article/view/5.
• Marks, H. M., & Louis, K. S. (1997). Does teacher empowerment affect the classroom? The implications of teacher empowerment for instructional practice and student academic performance. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 19(3), 245–275. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737019003245.
• Melenyzer, B. J. (1990). Teacher empowerment: The discourse, meanings and social actions of teachers. Paper presented at the National Council of States on Inservice Education, 16-20 November, Orlando, FL.
• Meng, L., Liu, Y., Liu, H., Hu, Y., Yang, J., & Liu, J. (2015). Relationships among structural empowerment, psychological empowerment, intent to stay and burnout in nursing field in mainland China-based on a cross-sectional questionnaire research: Relations among empowerment, intent to stay and burnout. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 21(3), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12279.
• Menon, S. T. (2001). Employee empowerment: An integrative psychological approach. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50(1), 153-180.
• Milakovich, M. E. (1995). Improving Service Quality: Achieving High Performance in the Public and Private Sectors. Delray Beach, FL: St Lucie Press.
• Milakovich, M. E. (2005). Improving Service Quality in the Global Economy: Achieving High Performance in Public and Private Sectors. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
• Mowbray, P. K., Wilkinson, A., & Tse, H. H. M. (2015). Employee Voice: Review and Research Agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 17, 382-400. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12045.
• Nechanska, E., Hughes, E., & Dundon, T. (2020). Towards an integration of employee voice and silence. Human Resource Management Review, 30(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.11.002.
• Newcombe, G., & McCormick, J. (2001). Trust and teacher participation in school-based financial decision making. Educational Management and Administration, 29(2), 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263211X010292004.
• Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2012). Employee voice behavior: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources framework. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 216-234. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.754.
• Nir, A. (2002). School's health and its relation to teacher commitment. Planning and Changing, 33(1/2), 106‐126.
• O’Brien, J. L. (2011). Relationships among structural empowerment, psychological empowerment, and burnout in registered staff nurses working in outpatient dialysis centers. Nephrology Nursing Journal, 38(6), 475-481.
• Öztürk Çiftçi, D. (2019). Lider üye etkileşiminin işe adanmışlık üzerindeki etkisinde psikolojik güçlendirmenin aracı rolü. Business and Economics Research Journal, 10(1), 167-186.
• Parker, S. K., Wall, T. D., & Cordery, J. L. (2001). Future work design research and practice: Towards an elaborated model of work design. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(4), 413-440. Pearce, C. L., Sims Jr. H. P., Cox, J. F., Ball, G., Schnell, E., Smith, K. A., & Trevino, L. (2003). Transactors, transformers and beyond: A multi‐method development of a theoretical typology of leadership. Journal of Management Development, 22(4), 273-307. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710310467587.
• Pounder, D. G. (Ed.) (1998). Restructuring Schools for Collaboration. New York: State University of New York.
• Reitzug, U. C. (1994). A case study of empowering principal behavior. American Educational Research Journal, 31(2), 283-307.
• Rice, E. M., & Schneider, G. T. (1994). A decade of teacher empowerment: An empirical analysis of teacher involvement in decision making, 1980‐1991. Journal of Educational Administration, 32(1), 43-58. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578239410051844.
• Rinehart, J. S., & Short, P. M. (1991). Viewing reading recovery as a restructuring phenomenon. Journal of School Leadership, 1(4), 379–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/105268469100100409.
• Robbins, T. L., Crino, M. D., & Fredendall, L. D. (2002). An integrative model of the empowerment process. Human Resource Management Review, 12(3), 419-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00068-2.
• Rosenholtz, S. J. (1989). Workplace conditions that affect teacher quality and commitment: Implications for teacher induction programs. The Elementary School Journal, 89(4), 421-439. https://doi.org/10.1086/461584.
• Rosenholtz, S. J., & Simpson, C. (1990). Workplace conditions and the Rise and Fall of teachers’ commitment. Sociology of Education, 63(4), 241–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112873.
• Royer, L. (2011). Empowerment and commitment perceptions of community/public health nurses and their tenure intention. Public Health Nursing, 28(6), 523-532.
• Sağnak, M. (2012). The empowering leadership and teachers innovative behavior: The mediating role of innovation climate. African Journal of Business Management, 6(4), 1635-1641.
• Schweitzer, V., & Simon, F. (2021). Self-construals as the locus of paradoxical consumer empowerment in self-service retail technology environments. Journal of Business Research, 126, 291-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.11.027.
• Short, P. M. (1994). Defining teacher empowerment. Education, 114(4), 488–492.
• Short, P. M., & Rinehart, J. S. (1992). School participant empowerment scale: Assessment of level of empowerment within the school environment. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 951–960. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004018.
• Short, P. M., Miller-Wood, D. J., & Johnson, P. E. (1991). Risk taking and teacher involvement in decision making. Education, 112(1), 84–89.
• Sprague, J. (1992). Critical perspectives on teacher empowerment. Communication Education, 41(2), 181–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529209378879.
• Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442–1465. https://doi.org/10.2307/256865.
• Srivastava, A., Bartol, K. M., & Locke, E. A. (2006). Empowering leadership in management teams: Effects on knowledge sharing, efficacy, and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 49(6), 1239-1251.
• Stoddart, A. L., & Selanders, K. P. (2022). Preparing for physical literacy: Exploring pre-service teachers’ training and understanding. Teaching and Teacher Education, 120, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103886.
• Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). School characteristics and educational outcomes: Toward an organizational model of student achievement in middle schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(5), 703–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131610021969173.
• Terry, P. (1995). Empowering teachers as leaders [Electronic Version]. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 10E(3), 1-8. Available at: http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Terry,%20paul%20M.%20Empowering%20Teachers%20As%20Leaders.pdf. Accessed on 12 November 2022.
• Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An “interpretive” model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926.
• Thurlings, M., Evers, A. T., & Vermeulen, M. (2015). Toward a model of explaining teachers’ innovative behavior: A literature review. Review of Educational Research, 85(3), 430–471. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314557949.
• Tian, X., & Chae, H. (2023). The double-sided effect of empowering leadership on constructive voice behavior: Focusing on the mediating effects of task significance and task overload. Behavioral Sciences, 13(2), 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13020180.
• Tolay, E., Sürgevil, O., & Topoyan, M. (2012). Akademik çalışma ortamında yapısal ve psikolojik güçlendirmenin duygusal bağlılık ve iş doyumu üzerindeki etkileri. Ege Akademik Bakış, 12(4), 449-465.
• UNESCO. (2015). Quality Physical Education (QPE): Guidelines for Policy Makers. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000231101. Accessed on 02 March 2023.
• Vecchio, R. P., Justin, J. E., & Pearce, C. L. (2010). Empowering leadership: An examination of mediating mechanisms within a hierarchical structure. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 530-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.014.
• Wan, E. (2005). Teacher empowerment: Concepts, strategies, and implications for schools in Hong Kong. Teachers College Record, 107(4), 842–861. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810510700411.
• Wang, Q., Hou, H., & Li, Z. (2022). Participative Leadership: A Literature Review and Prospects for Future Research. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.924357.
• Whitehead, M. (2010). Physical Literacy: Throughout the Lifecourse. New York, NY: Routledge.
• Yao, Y., Zhang, L., & Sun, H. (2023). Enhancing project managers’ strategy commitment by leader-leader exchange: The role of psychological empowerment and organizational identification. International Journal of Project Management, 41(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2023.102465.
• Yin, H. B., Lee, J. C. K., Jin, Y. L., & Zhang, Z. H. (2013) The effect of trust on teacher empowerment: The mediation of teacher efficacy. Educational Studies, 39(1), 13-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2012.666339.
• Yun, S., Cox, J., & Sims, H. P. Jr (2006). The forgotten follower: A contingency model of leadership and follower self-leadership. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(4), 374-388.
• Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. The Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 107–128.
• Zhang, X., Ye, H., & Li, Y. (2018). Correlates of structural empowerment, psychological empowerment and emotional exhaustion among registered nurses: A meta-analysis. Applied Nursing Research, 42, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2018.04.006.
• Zhu, J., Yao, J., & Zhang, L. (2019). Linking empowering leadership to innovative behavior in professional learning communities: The role of psychological empowerment and team psychological safety. Asia Pacific Education Review, 20, 657–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09584-2.