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The Plague of Justinian: Political, Economic and Societal Impacts

Yıl 2023, , 165 - 190, 16.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.61524/fuuiibfdergi.1366191

Öz

In 541 AD, the plague which broke out in Egyptian city of Pelesium which was called as a corn loft of the Byzantine Empire, and directy or indirectly affected through all the coastal cities of Mediterranean. The plague which was felt its effect for nearly two centuries, spread to the inner regions over time and made its presence felt in many parts of Europe. The plague, which initially spread by means of the trade, also spread to various places through missionaries who preached Christianity especially in Britain. The causes of the plague, which emerged in sixth century, were not only biological factors but also a number of climate crises. The volcanic winter, which is thought to have affected the northern hemisphere in 536, was important in the emergence of the plague and the increase in the number of people who lost their lives during the epidemic. According to current research, the climate crisis caused by a volcanic eruption or a comet impact on the earth’s surface has created a decline in agricultural production. Most of the farmers who could not get enough goods due to the volcanic winter that lasted for two years, had to migrate to meet their needs. The migration movement not only caused the abandonment of agricultural areas, but also made it difficult for the people of Late Antiquity, who were already unable to achieve adequate and balanced nutrition, to meet their consumption needs. As a matter of fact, this situation caused people’s immune system to decrease significantly in the face of the epidemic. In this context, although the 536 climate crisis was not the primary cause of the plague, it was an important element in the spread of the epidemic and the increase in death rates. The plague deeply affected the Byzantine Empire, which was based on permanent settlement. In addition to the plague costing the lives of many people, the fact that healthy people left their homes for the fear of contractiong the disease gave rise to the migration movement. This migration has created a great problem in terms of increasing public order and providing food. Moreover, the very high death rates caused by the plague made it difficult to find people to work in agriculture and various jobs, and this caused an increase in labor prices. Iustinianus, the Byzantine Emperor of the period, also anacted laws to prevent these price increases. In addition, the high human lost caused difficulties in recruiting soldiers to the army, and the empire had to turn to “barbarian” mercenaries. The fact that the plague, which affected almost all Mediterranean cities, spread especially to the inner parts of Europe is a very important element for the medieval European World. The people who avoided catching the plague turned to religion, which enabled the church to increase its power, and the adoption of the idea of a self-sufficient economy by minimizing the connection with the outside World was an important factor in the formation of the feodal social order.

Kaynakça

  • Antik Kaynaklar
  • Annals of Inisfallen: 537: https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100004/index.html (18.09.2023).
  • Annals of Ulster: 536: https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A/index.html (18.09.2023).
  • Bede, Historical Works I-III, trans. J. E. King, The Loeb Classical Library, 1962.
  • Cassiodorus, Variae, trans. S. J. B. Barnish, Liverpool University Press, 2006.
  • Corpus Iuris Civilis, Novellae: https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/corpjurciv.htm (22.09.2023).
  • Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History (AD 431-594), trans. E. Walford: http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/evagrius_4_book4.htm (06.05.2021).
  • Flavius Cresconius Corippus, Iohannis (De Bellis Libycis), trans. George W. Shea, Edwin Mellen Press, 1998.
  • Greek Bible: https://www.greekbible.com/ (22.09.2023).
  • Gregorius of Tours, Libri Historiarum: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours.html (20.09.2023).
  • Gregory of Tours, History of The Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe, Penguin Books, 1974.
  • Ioannes Lydus, Liber De Ostentis, ed. Curtius Wachsmuth, in Aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1897.
  • Marcellinus Comes, Chronichon, ed. Theodorus Mommsen, Minora II, Paris, 1894: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (22.090.2023).
  • Michael the Great, Chronicle, trans. Robert Bedrosian, 2013: https://archive.org/details/ChronicleOfMichaelTheGreatPatriarchOfTheSyrians/page/n3/mode/2up (23.09.2023).
  • Paul, Deacon, History of The Lombards, trans. William Dudley Foulke, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
  • Procopius, Bizans’ın Gizli Tarihi, çev. Orhan Duru, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2011.
  • Procopius, History of The Wars I-II (Persian War), trans. H. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library, 1914.
  • Procopius, History of The Wars III-IV (Vandalic War), trans. H. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library, 1916.
  • Scriptores Historiae Augustae I, trans. David Magie, The Loeb Classical Library, 1922.
  • Scriptores Historiae Augustae III, trans. David Magie, The Loeb Classical Library, 1998.
  • Syriac Chronicle (Zacharias of Mytilene), trans. F. J. Hamilton-E. W. Brooks, ed. J. B. Bury, Methuen Publishing, 1899.
  • Thucydides, History of Peloponnesian War I-II, trans. Charles Forsters Smith, The Loeb Classical Library, 1956.
  • Modern Kaynaklar
  • ARJAVA, Antti, “The Mystery Cloud of 536 CE in The Mediterranean Sources”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol 59, 2005, s. 73-94.
  • BARRAS, Collin, “The Year of Darkness”, New Scientist, Vol 221, 2014, s. 34-38.
  • BENEDICTOW, Ole Jørgen, “The Origin and Early Spread of Yersinia pestis and of Epidemic Plague: Palaeobiological and Historical Viewpoints”, RCC Perspectives, No. 3, Sickness, Hunger, War, and Religion: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 2012, s. 543-548.
  • BROWN, Peter, Geç Antikçağ Dünyası, çev. Turhan Kaçar, Alfa Yayınları, 2016.
  • ÇELGİN, Güler, Eski Yunanca-Türkçe Sözlük, Alfa Yayınları, 2018.
  • DOLS, Michael W, “Plague in Early Islamic History”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol 94, No 3, 1974, s. 371-383.
  • GARDAN, Gabriel-Viorel, “The Justinianic Plague: The Effects of a Pandemic in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages”, Romanian Journal of Artistic Creativity, Vol 8, Iss 4, 2020, s. 3-18.
  • HEMPEL, Sandra. The Atlas of Disease, White Lion Publishing, 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=black%20death (22.09.2023).
  • LITTLE, Lester K. “Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic”, Plague and The End of Antiquity The Pandemic of 541-750, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 3-32.
  • LITTMAN, Robert J, “The Plague of Athens: Epidemiology and Paleopathology”, Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, Vol 76, 2009, s. 456-467.
  • MCEVEDY, Colin, JONES, Richard, Atlas of World Population History, Penguin Book, 1979.
  • MOLGAARD, Craig A, GOLBECK Amanda L.-RYAN Kerry E., “Justinian’s Plague, Hagiography and Monasticism”, The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, Vol 6, Iss 10, 2012, s. 67-80.
  • MORDECHAIA, Lee, EISENBERG, Merle, “Rejecting Catastrophe: The Case of the Justinianic Plague” Past & Present, Vol 244, Iss 1, 2019, s. 3-50.
  • MORDECHAIA, Lee, EISENBERG, Merle, NEWFIELD Timothy P., IZDEBSKI Adam-KAY Janet E., POINAR Hendrik, “The Justinianic Plague: An Inconsequential Pandemic?” PNAS, October 7, 2019, s. 25546-25554.
  • MORONY, Michael G., “‘For Whom Does the Writer Write?’: The First Bubonic Plague Pandemic According to Syriac Sources”, Plague and The End of Antiquity, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 59-86.
  • PATTE, Daniel, “Synoptic Gospels”, The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity, ed. Daniel Patte, Cambridge University Press, 2010, s. 1203.
  • POWER, Bruce, “A Sixth Century Plague Wasn’t So Dire”, Humans & Society, 2020: https://www.sciencenewsdigital.org/sciencenews/january_18__2020/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1552089#articleId1552089 (15.10.2020).
  • RAMPINO, Michael R., SELF Stephen, STOTHERS Richard B., “Volcanic Winters”, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol 16, 1988, s. 73-99.
  • RIGBY, Emma, SYMOND, Melissa, WARD-THOMPSON, Derek, “A comet impact in AD 536?”, Astronomy & Geophysics, Vol 45, 2004, s. 1.23-1.26.
  • ROSEN, William, Justinian’s Flea Plague, Empire and The Birth of Europe, Penguin Book, 2007.
  • RUSSELL, J. C., “Late Ancient and Medieval Population”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 48, No. 3, 1958, s. 1-152.
  • SAYAR, Mustafa, “Migration as Result of Natural Disasters in the Eastern Mediterranean World in Antiquity”, Migration in Antiquity Conference Centre Monte Veritas, Ascona / Switzerland 26 April-01 May 2020, Abstract Book (2022): https://www.academia.edu/40914160/On_the_Move_Migration_in_Antiquity_10_15th_April_2022_ (30.10.2023).
  • STATHAKOPOULOS, Dionysios, “Crime and Punishment The Plague in the Byzantine Empire, 541–749”, Plague and The End of Antiquity The Pandemic of 541-750, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 99-118.
  • STATHAKOPOULOS, Dionysios, “Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)”, The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, ed. Oliver Nicholson, 2018, s. 1200-1201.
  • STOTHERS, R. B., “Myster Cloud of AD 536”, Nature, Vol 307, 1984, s. 344-345.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, 1997. WICKHAM, Chris, Framing the Early Middle Ages Europe and the Mediterranean 400–800, Oxford University Press, 2005.
  • WIECHMANN, Ingrid, “Plague-An Introduction”, RCC Perspectives, No. 3, Sickness, Hunger, War, and Religion: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 2012, s. 65-67.

IUSTINIANUS VEBASI: SİYASİ, EKONOMİK VE SOSYAL ETKİLERİ

Yıl 2023, , 165 - 190, 16.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.61524/fuuiibfdergi.1366191

Öz

Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun “tahıl ambarı” olarak adlandırılan Mısır’ın Pelusium kentinde 541’de patlak veren veba salgını, doğrudan ya da dolaylı yoldan Akdeniz’in tüm sahil kentlerini etkilemiştir. Yaklaşık iki yüzyıl boyunca etkisini hissettiren veba salgını, zamanla iç bölgelere de sirayet ederek Avrupa’nın pek çok bölgesinde varlığını hissettirmiştir. Başlangıçta ticaret vasıtasıyla yayılım gösteren salgın, bilhassa Britanya’da Hıristiyanlığı tebliğ eden misyonerler aracılığıyla muhtelif yerlere de yayılmıştır. Altıncı yüzyılda ortaya çıkan veba salgının arkasında sadece biyolojik etmenlerin değil, aynı zamanda birtakım iklimsel krizlerin de yattığı düşünülmektedir. Bilhassa 536’da Kuzey Yarım Küre’yi etkilediği düşünülen volkanik kış, veba salgının ortaya çıkışında ve salgın sırasında yaşamını yitiren insan sayısının artışında önemli bir etkendir. Güncel araştırmalara göre bir volkan patlaması ya da dünya yüzeyine bir kuyruklu yıldız çarpması sonucu ortaya çıkan iklim krizi, tarımsal üretimde bir düşüş yaratmıştır. Yaklaşık iki yıl kadar süren volkanik kış nedeniyle yeterli ürün elde edemeyen çiftçilerin büyük bir kısmı ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak amacıyla göç etmek durumunda kalmışlardır. Yaşanan bu göç hareketi, sadece tarım arazilerinin boş kalmasına neden olmamış, aynı zamanda zaten yeterli beslenme konusunda pek de başarılı olamayan Geç Antik Çağ insanlarının tüketim ihtiyaçlarına ulaşımını zorlaştırmıştır. Nitekim bu durum da insanların salgın karşısında bağışıklık sistemlerinin iyiden iyiye düşmesine sebep olmuştur. Bu bağlamda 536 iklim krizi, vebanın birincil etkeni değilse de salgının yayılımında ve ölüm oranlarının artmasında önemli bir unsurdur. Veba salgını bilhassa yerleşik düzen üzerine kurulu olan Bizans İmparatorluğu’nu derinden etkilemiştir. Salgının pek çok insanın canına mal olmasının yanında sağlıklı insanların hastalığa yakalanmaktan korkarak bulundukları yerleri terk etmeleri, bir göç hareketi doğurmuştur. Yaşanan bu göç hareketi de asayişsizliğin artması ve iaşe teminin sağlanması noktasında büyük bir sıkıntı yaratmıştır. Dahası salgın kaynaklı ölüm oranlarının oldukça yüksek olması, tarımda ve muhtelif işlerde çalışacak insan bulmayı zorlaştırmış ve bu durum da işgücü fiyatlarında artışa neden olmuştur. Dönemin Bizans İmparatoru Iustinianus da bu fiyat artışlarının önüne geçmek için yasalar çıkarmıştır. Ayrıca insan kaybının fazla olması orduya asker alımında sıkıntı çıkarmış ve imparatorluk “barbar” paralı askerlere yönelmek durumunda kalmıştır. Hemen hemen tüm Akdeniz kentlerini etkisi altına alan veba salgının özellikle Avrupa’nın iç kesimlerine yayılım göstermesi, Orta Çağ Avrupa dünyası açısından oldukça önemli bir unsurdur. Vebaya yakalanmaktan imtina eden insanların dine yönelmesi, kilisenin gücünü arttırmasını sağlamıştır. Ayrıca dış dünyayla bağlantının en aza indirilerek kendi kendine yeten bir ekonomi fikrinin benimsenmesi, feodal düzenin oluşumu noktasında önemli bir etken olmuştur.

Kaynakça

  • Antik Kaynaklar
  • Annals of Inisfallen: 537: https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100004/index.html (18.09.2023).
  • Annals of Ulster: 536: https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A/index.html (18.09.2023).
  • Bede, Historical Works I-III, trans. J. E. King, The Loeb Classical Library, 1962.
  • Cassiodorus, Variae, trans. S. J. B. Barnish, Liverpool University Press, 2006.
  • Corpus Iuris Civilis, Novellae: https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/corpjurciv.htm (22.09.2023).
  • Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History (AD 431-594), trans. E. Walford: http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/evagrius_4_book4.htm (06.05.2021).
  • Flavius Cresconius Corippus, Iohannis (De Bellis Libycis), trans. George W. Shea, Edwin Mellen Press, 1998.
  • Greek Bible: https://www.greekbible.com/ (22.09.2023).
  • Gregorius of Tours, Libri Historiarum: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours.html (20.09.2023).
  • Gregory of Tours, History of The Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe, Penguin Books, 1974.
  • Ioannes Lydus, Liber De Ostentis, ed. Curtius Wachsmuth, in Aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1897.
  • Marcellinus Comes, Chronichon, ed. Theodorus Mommsen, Minora II, Paris, 1894: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (22.090.2023).
  • Michael the Great, Chronicle, trans. Robert Bedrosian, 2013: https://archive.org/details/ChronicleOfMichaelTheGreatPatriarchOfTheSyrians/page/n3/mode/2up (23.09.2023).
  • Paul, Deacon, History of The Lombards, trans. William Dudley Foulke, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
  • Procopius, Bizans’ın Gizli Tarihi, çev. Orhan Duru, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2011.
  • Procopius, History of The Wars I-II (Persian War), trans. H. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library, 1914.
  • Procopius, History of The Wars III-IV (Vandalic War), trans. H. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library, 1916.
  • Scriptores Historiae Augustae I, trans. David Magie, The Loeb Classical Library, 1922.
  • Scriptores Historiae Augustae III, trans. David Magie, The Loeb Classical Library, 1998.
  • Syriac Chronicle (Zacharias of Mytilene), trans. F. J. Hamilton-E. W. Brooks, ed. J. B. Bury, Methuen Publishing, 1899.
  • Thucydides, History of Peloponnesian War I-II, trans. Charles Forsters Smith, The Loeb Classical Library, 1956.
  • Modern Kaynaklar
  • ARJAVA, Antti, “The Mystery Cloud of 536 CE in The Mediterranean Sources”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol 59, 2005, s. 73-94.
  • BARRAS, Collin, “The Year of Darkness”, New Scientist, Vol 221, 2014, s. 34-38.
  • BENEDICTOW, Ole Jørgen, “The Origin and Early Spread of Yersinia pestis and of Epidemic Plague: Palaeobiological and Historical Viewpoints”, RCC Perspectives, No. 3, Sickness, Hunger, War, and Religion: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 2012, s. 543-548.
  • BROWN, Peter, Geç Antikçağ Dünyası, çev. Turhan Kaçar, Alfa Yayınları, 2016.
  • ÇELGİN, Güler, Eski Yunanca-Türkçe Sözlük, Alfa Yayınları, 2018.
  • DOLS, Michael W, “Plague in Early Islamic History”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol 94, No 3, 1974, s. 371-383.
  • GARDAN, Gabriel-Viorel, “The Justinianic Plague: The Effects of a Pandemic in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages”, Romanian Journal of Artistic Creativity, Vol 8, Iss 4, 2020, s. 3-18.
  • HEMPEL, Sandra. The Atlas of Disease, White Lion Publishing, 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=black%20death (22.09.2023).
  • LITTLE, Lester K. “Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic”, Plague and The End of Antiquity The Pandemic of 541-750, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 3-32.
  • LITTMAN, Robert J, “The Plague of Athens: Epidemiology and Paleopathology”, Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, Vol 76, 2009, s. 456-467.
  • MCEVEDY, Colin, JONES, Richard, Atlas of World Population History, Penguin Book, 1979.
  • MOLGAARD, Craig A, GOLBECK Amanda L.-RYAN Kerry E., “Justinian’s Plague, Hagiography and Monasticism”, The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, Vol 6, Iss 10, 2012, s. 67-80.
  • MORDECHAIA, Lee, EISENBERG, Merle, “Rejecting Catastrophe: The Case of the Justinianic Plague” Past & Present, Vol 244, Iss 1, 2019, s. 3-50.
  • MORDECHAIA, Lee, EISENBERG, Merle, NEWFIELD Timothy P., IZDEBSKI Adam-KAY Janet E., POINAR Hendrik, “The Justinianic Plague: An Inconsequential Pandemic?” PNAS, October 7, 2019, s. 25546-25554.
  • MORONY, Michael G., “‘For Whom Does the Writer Write?’: The First Bubonic Plague Pandemic According to Syriac Sources”, Plague and The End of Antiquity, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 59-86.
  • PATTE, Daniel, “Synoptic Gospels”, The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity, ed. Daniel Patte, Cambridge University Press, 2010, s. 1203.
  • POWER, Bruce, “A Sixth Century Plague Wasn’t So Dire”, Humans & Society, 2020: https://www.sciencenewsdigital.org/sciencenews/january_18__2020/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1552089#articleId1552089 (15.10.2020).
  • RAMPINO, Michael R., SELF Stephen, STOTHERS Richard B., “Volcanic Winters”, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol 16, 1988, s. 73-99.
  • RIGBY, Emma, SYMOND, Melissa, WARD-THOMPSON, Derek, “A comet impact in AD 536?”, Astronomy & Geophysics, Vol 45, 2004, s. 1.23-1.26.
  • ROSEN, William, Justinian’s Flea Plague, Empire and The Birth of Europe, Penguin Book, 2007.
  • RUSSELL, J. C., “Late Ancient and Medieval Population”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 48, No. 3, 1958, s. 1-152.
  • SAYAR, Mustafa, “Migration as Result of Natural Disasters in the Eastern Mediterranean World in Antiquity”, Migration in Antiquity Conference Centre Monte Veritas, Ascona / Switzerland 26 April-01 May 2020, Abstract Book (2022): https://www.academia.edu/40914160/On_the_Move_Migration_in_Antiquity_10_15th_April_2022_ (30.10.2023).
  • STATHAKOPOULOS, Dionysios, “Crime and Punishment The Plague in the Byzantine Empire, 541–749”, Plague and The End of Antiquity The Pandemic of 541-750, ed. Lester K. Little, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 99-118.
  • STATHAKOPOULOS, Dionysios, “Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)”, The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, ed. Oliver Nicholson, 2018, s. 1200-1201.
  • STOTHERS, R. B., “Myster Cloud of AD 536”, Nature, Vol 307, 1984, s. 344-345.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, 1997. WICKHAM, Chris, Framing the Early Middle Ages Europe and the Mediterranean 400–800, Oxford University Press, 2005.
  • WIECHMANN, Ingrid, “Plague-An Introduction”, RCC Perspectives, No. 3, Sickness, Hunger, War, and Religion: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 2012, s. 65-67.
Toplam 50 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Siyasi Düşünce Tarihi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Bahadır Ikican 0000-0002-4227-649X

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 16 Aralık 2023
Yayımlanma Tarihi 16 Aralık 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 25 Eylül 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023

Kaynak Göster

APA Ikican, B. (2023). IUSTINIANUS VEBASI: SİYASİ, EKONOMİK VE SOSYAL ETKİLERİ. Firat University International Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 7(2), 165-190. https://doi.org/10.61524/fuuiibfdergi.1366191