A Review of Theory of Mind: Different Mental States and Lifespan Development

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 5, 75 - 92, 30.06.2022

Zehra Ertuğrul Yaşar

https://doi.org/10.51503/gpd.994028

Öz

Theory of mind, one of our most significant socio-cognitive skills, may be defined as the ability to attribute mental states to both others and ourselves and to predict behaviors in terms of these mental states. Theory of mind researches mostly rely on a single mental state during a single period and investigate false belief understanding during preschool period with similar methods and tasks. However, theory of mind involves other mental states such as desire, knowledge, emotion, faux pas and sarcasm. Although not investigated in Turkey, theory of mind continues to develop in adolescents, adults and older. From this point of view, this study aims to review theory of mind from a developmental perspective and includes mental states that develops during different life periods as well as their measures. Thus, we try to draw attention to a broad assessment of mental states in different lifespan periods rather than just relying on false belief understanding in preschool period.

Anahtar Kelimeler

theory of mind, review, mental states, lifespan development, theory of mind tasks

Zihin Kuramının Gözden Geçirilmesi: Farklı Zihinsel Durumlar ve Yaşam Boyu Gelişim

Öz

En önemli sosyobilişsel becerilerden biri olan Zihin Kuramı, sosyal dünyada kendimize ve başkalarına zihinsel durumlar atfetme ve bu zihinsel durumlar üzerinden davranışları tahmin etme becerimizdir. Zihin kuramı, ağırlıklı olarak tek bir yaşam dönemindeki tek bir zihinsel duruma indirgenerek okul öncesi dönemdeki yanlış kanılara odaklanmakta ve benzer yöntem ve görevler ile çalışılmaktadır. Oysaki zihin kuramının kapsamında arzu, bilgi, duygu, gaf, kinaye vb. zihinsel durumlar da mevcuttur. Bununla birlikte Türkiye’deki çalışmalarda incelenmemiş olsa da zihin kuramı ergenlik, yetişkinlik ve yaşlılık dönemlerinde de gelişimine devam etmektedir. Bu noktalardan hareketle bu çalışmanın amacı zihin kuramını gelişimsel bir yaklaşım ile ele alarak yaşamın farklı dönemlerinde gelişen zihinsel durumları ve bu durumların değerlendirilmesini literatür ışığında ele almaktır. Böylece hem zihin kuramının sadece yanlış kanı atfı temelinde değil aksine daha kapsamlı ölçülmesi gerektiğine hem de sadece okul öncesi dönemde değil ergenlik, yetişkinlik ve yaşlılık dönemlerinde de incelenmesi gerektiğine dikkat çekilmiş olacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

zihin kuramı, derleme, zihinsel durum, zihin kuramı görevleri, yaşam boyu gelişim

Kaynakça

• Apperly, I. A. ve Butterfill, S. A. (2009). Do humans have two systems to track beliefs and belief-like states? Psychological review, 116(4), 953.
• Apperly, I. A., Samson, D. ve Humphreys, G. W. (2009). Studies of adults can inform accounts of theory of mind development. Developmental Psychology, 45(1), 190.
• Astington, J.W. (1994). The Child's Discovery of the Mind, Fontana Press: London.
• Astington, J.W. ve Baird, J.A. (2005). Introduction: Why language matters. J. W. Astington ve J. A. Baird (Ed.), Why Language Matters for Theory of Mind içinde, 3-25, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Astington, J.W., Jenkins J. (1999). A Longitudinal Study of the Relation Between Language and Theory of Mind Development. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1311–1320
• Astington, J. W., Pelletier, J., ve Homer, B. (2002). Theory of mind and epistemological development: The relation between children's second-order false-belief understanding and their ability to reason about evidence. New ideas in Psychology, 20(2-3), 131-144.
• Baron-Cohen S, Jolliffe T, Mortimore C ve Robertsen, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or asperger syndrome. J Child PsycholPsychiatry, 38, 813-822.
• Baron-Cohen, S., O’Riordan, M., Stone, V., Jones, R., ve Plaisted, K. (1999). Recognition of faux pas by normally developing children and children with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(5), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023035012436
• Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., ve Plumb, I. (2001). The “reading the mind in the eyes” test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2), 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00715
• Bartsch, K., Wellman, H. (1989). Young Children’s Attribution of Action. Child Development, 60, 946-964.
• Beaudoin C., Leblanc É., Gagner C. ve Beauchamp M.H. (2020). Systematic review and inventory of theory of mind measures for young children. Front. Psychol. 10:2905. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02905
• Carlson, S. M., Koenig, M. A., ve Harms, M. B. (2013). Theory of mind. WIREs Cogn. Sci. 4, 391–402. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1232
• Cassidy, K.W., Cosetti, M., Jones, R., Kelton, E., Rafal V.M., Richman, L. ve Stanhaus, H. (2005). Preschool children's understanding of conflicting desires. Journal of Cognition and Development, 6:3, 427-454.
• Devine, R. T., White, N., Ensor, R., ve Hughes, C. (2016). Theory of mind in middle childhood: Longitudinal associations with executive function and social competence. Developmental psychology, 52(5), 758.
• Fischer, A. L., O’Rourke, N., ve Loken Thornton, W. (2017). Age differences in cognitive and affective theory of mind: Concurrent contributions of neurocognitive performance, sex, and pulse pressure. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 72(1), 71-81.
• Flavell, J.H. (1977). The development of knowledge about visual perception. Nebr. Symp. Motiv. 25, 43–76.
• Flavell, J.H. (1988). The development of children’s knowledge about the mind: From cognitive connections to mental representations. J.W. Astington, P.L. Harris, ve D.R. Olson (Ed.), Developing Theories of Mind içinde, New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Flavell, J.H. (1992). Cognitive Development: Past, Present and Future. Developmental Psychology, 28, 998-1005.
• Flavell, J.H. (1996). Piaget’s Legacy. Psychological Science, 7, 200-203.
• Flavell, J.H. (2000). Development of children’s knowledge about the mental world. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 15-23.
• Flavell, J.H. (2001). Children’s understanding of second-order mental states. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 749-773.
• Flavell, J.H., Flavell, E.R. ve Green, F.L. (1983). Development of the appearance-eeality distinction. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 95–120.
• Gabriel, E. T., Oberger, R., Schmoeger, M., Deckert, M., Vockh, S., Auff, E., ve Willinger, U. (2019). Cognitive and affective Theory of Mind in adolescence: developmental aspects and associated neuropsychological variables. Psychological research, 85(2), 533-553.
• Gopnik, A. ve Astington, J.W. (1988). Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26-37.
• Gopnik, A. ve Slaughter, V. (1991). Young children's understanding of changes in their mental states. Child Development, 62, 98-110.
• Happe, F. G. E. (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters’ thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 129–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02172093
• Happe, F. G., Winner, E., ve Brownell, H. (1998). The getting of wisdom: theory of mind in old age. Developmental psychology, 34(2), 358.
• Harris, P. L., Donnely, K., Guz, G. R., Pitt-Watson, R. (1986). Children's understanding of the distinction between real and apparent emotion. Child Development, 57, 895-909.
• Henry, J. D., Phillips, L. H., Ruffman, T., ve Bailey, P. E. (2013). A meta-analytic review of age differences in theory of mind. Psychology and Aging, 28(3), 826.
• Ketelaars, M. P., Van Weerdenburg, M., Verhoeven, L., Cuperus, J. M., ve Jansonius, K. (2010). Dynamics of the theory of mind construct: A developmental perspective. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(1), 85-103.
• Megias-Robles, A., Gutiérrez-Cobo, M. J., Cabello, R., Gómez-Leal, R., Baron-Cohen, S., ve Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2020). The ‘Reading the mind in the Eyes' test and emotional intelligence. Royal Society open science, 7(9), 201305.
• Meinhardt‐Injac, B., Daum, M. M., ve Meinhardt, G. (2020). Theory of mind development from adolescence to adulthood: Testing the two‐component model. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 289-303.
• Miller, S. A. (2009). Children’s understanding of second-order mental states. Psychological bulletin, 135(5), 749.
• Miller, S. A. (2013). Children's understanding of second‐order false belief: Comparisons of content and method of assessment. Infant and Child Development, 22(6), 649-658.
• Miller S. A. (2019). Social-Cognitive Development in Early Childhood. Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, (Ed.) Zelazo PD, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development içinde.[online].https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/social-cognition/according-experts/social-cognitive-development-early-childhood.
• O'neill, D. K., Astington, J.W. (1990). Young children's understanding of the role that sensory experiences play in knowledge acquisition. Child Development, 63(2), 474-490.
• Onishi, K. H. ve Baillargeon, R. (2005). Do 15-month-old infants understand false beliefs?. Science, 308(5719), 255-258.
• Perner, J. (1991). Understanding the representational mind. Imprint Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press
• Perner, J., Rendl, B. ve Garnham, A. (2007). Objects of desire, thought, and reality: Problems of anchoring discourse referents in development. Mind & Language, 22, 475-513.
• Perner, J. ve Wimmer, H. (1985). “John thinks that Mary thinks that...”: Attribution of Second-Order Beliefs by 5- to 10-Year-Old Children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 437-471.
• Peterson, C. C., ve Wellman, H. M. (2019). Longitudinal theory of mind (ToM) development from preschool to adolescence with and without ToM delay. Child Development, 90(6), 1917-1934.
• Pillow, B. H. (1989). Early understanding of perception as a source of knowledge. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47(1), 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(89)90066-0
• Pinto, G., Primi, C., Tarchi, C., ve Bigozzi, L. (2017). Mental state talk structure in children’s narratives: A cluster analysis. Child Development Research, 2017.
• Pons, F., Harris, P. L. ve de Rosnay, M. (2004). Emotion comprehension between 3 and 11 years: developmental periods and hierarchical organization, European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1, 127-152.
• Poulin-Dubois, D., Azar, N., Elkaim, B., Burnside, K. (2020). Testing the stability of theory of mind: A longitudinal approach. PLoS ONE 15(11): e0241721. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0241721
• Premack, D. ve Woodruf, C. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515-526.
• Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., ve Tomasello, M. (2007). “This way!”,“No! That way!”—3-year olds know that two people can have mutually incompatible desires. Cognitive Development, 22(1), 47-68.
• Repacholi, B. M ve Gopnik, A. (1997) Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-month-olds. Developmental Psychology, 33, 12-21.
• Samson, D., Apperly, I. A., Braithwaite, J. ve Andrews, B. (2010). Seeing it their way: Evidence for rapid and involuntary computation of what other people see. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36(5), 1255–1266.
• Scott, R. M., ve Baillargeon, R. (2017). Early false-belief understanding. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(4), 237-249.
• Sodian, B. (2005). Theory of Mind- The case for conceptual development, Schneider, Schumann-Hengsteler ve Sodian (Ed.) (2005), Young Children’s Cognitive Development İçinde. 95-130.
• Sodian, B., Kristen‐Antonow, S., ve Kloo, D. (2020). How does children’s theory of mind become explicit? A review of longitudinal findings. Child Development Perspectives, 14(3), 171-177.
• Sodian, B., Taylor, C., Harris, P. L., Perner, J. (1991). Early deception and the child’s theory of mind: False trails and genuine markers. Child Development, 62, 468-483.
• Surtees, A. D., Butterfill, S. A., ve Apperly, I. A. (2012). Direct and indirect measures of level‐2 perspective‐taking in children and adults. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 75-86.
• Tahiroğlu, D., Moses, L. J., Carlson, S. M., Olofson, E. L., ve Sabbagh, M. A. (2014). The Children’s Social Understanding Scale: Construction and validation of a parent- report theory-of-mind measure, Developmental Psychology, 50, 2485-2497.
• Taylor, M., Esbensen, B.M., Bennett, R.T. (1994). Children’s understanding of knowledge acquisition: The tendency for children to report that they have always known what they have just learned. Child Development, 65, 1581 – 1604
• Thoermer, C., Sodian, B., Vuori, M., Perst, H., Kristen, S. (2012). Continuity from an implicit to an explicit understanding of false belief from infancy to preschool age. Br J Dev Psychol., 30, 172–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2011.02067.x PMID: 22429040
• Wang, Y. ve Su, Y. (2006). Theory of mind in old adults: The performance on Happé’s stories and faux pas stories. Psychologia, 49(4), 228-237.
• Weimer, A.A., Sallquist, J. ve Bolnick, R.R. (2012) Young children's emotion comprehension and theory of mind understanding. Early Education and Development, 23:3, 280-301, DOI: 10.1080/10409289.2010.517694
• Wellman, H. M. (1990). The child's theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, A Bradford Book.
• Wellman, H. M. (2011) Developing a Theory of Mind. U. Goswami (Ed.) The Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development (2. Basım) içinde, NY: Blackwell.
• Wellman, H.M. (2012). Theory of mind: Better methods, clearer findings, more development. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9 (3), 313–330.
• Wellman, H.M., Cross, D. ve Watson, J. (2001). Meta-Analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72(3):655-84.
• Wellman, H.M., Fang, F. ve Peterson, C.C. (2011). Sequential progressions in a theory of mind scale: Longitudinal perspectives. Child Development, 82, 780–792.
• Wellman, H. ve Johnson, M.C.N. (1980). Children's developing understanding of mental verbs: Remember, know, and guess. Child Development, 51, 1095-1102.
• Wellman, H.M. ve Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75(2), 523–541.
• Wellman, H.M., Lopez-Duran, S., LaBounty, J., ve Hamilton, B. (2008). Infant attention to intentional action predicts preschool theory of mind. Developmental Psychology, 44, 618–623. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.618
• Wellman, H. ve Woolley, J. D. (1990). From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: The early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 35, 245-275.
• Wimmer, H., Hogrefe, G.J. ve Perner, J. (1988). Children’s understanding of informational access as source of knowledge. Child Development, 59, 386–396.
• Wimmer, H. ve Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128.
• Yıldırım, E. A., Kaşar, M., Güdük, M., Ateş, E., Küçükparlak, İ., ve Özalmete, E. O. (2011). Gözlerden Zihin Okuma Testi'nin Türkçe Güvenirlik Çalışması. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 22(3).