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A SINGLE GRAIN OF INDIGO: A READING ON MONGOLS AND TURKS IN THE U.S. LOCAL PRESS (1850-1923)

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 6, 445 - 462, 20.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.904413

Öz

In the 19th century, when belief in racial discrimination and superiority could find a response at social and even moral levels, claims about humanity as a biological species turned into a number of pseudoscientific assumptions. This inevitably constituted a legitimate ground for Orientalist stereotypes such as barbarism, despotism, ignorance, fanaticism and backwardness directed towards Eastern societies. Orientalism, which has been a baseline for the pride and superiority discourse inherent to the Western society since the second half of 18th century has been a method for their struggle to examine, learn and reign the East and the Easterners through a number of biased theories and practices which are considered as facts without any doubt. It is possible to approach the American society as a large-scale and heterogeneous sample that represents the West in the analysis of race-based reductionist discourse, which is steered to Eastern civilizations and endeavored to gain legitimacy through Orientalism.

This study aims to reveal the locally-penetrated reflections of a number of racist stereotypes claiming to be scientific and which take their place in the American press since the second half of 19th century in regards to Turkish and Mongolian identities that are frequently positioned opposite to Western societies in the context of being an ‘other’. These two ethnical groups which embrace historically archaic bonds in between has been demonstrated in the local American press as unique sometimes, and neighboring at times; but at the same time, as the carriers of a low-profile culture that can easily be differentiated from Western civilization at every attempt due to its racial specifications.

The image of Central Asia and its peoples in the American local press throughout the 19th and 20th centuries was represented by travel notes, columns, political news, short stories, and funnies. These texts and illustrations, which are mostly of pseudoscientific concerns, were sometimes published simultaneously in different states with a number of old articles and columns were reprinted in accordance with the conjuncture of the day. Among these, there are texts that tried to establish kinship ties between Germans and Mongols based on so-called scientific data obtained from skull measurements during the Great War, thus accusing Germans of being aggressive by nature. The anti-German propaganda that took place in the American local press also reveals that the word Mongolian turned into one of the main reference points of the racist paradigm during this period. Indeed, terms such as Mongol, Mongolian, and Mongoloid have expanded in meaning to characterize all peoples classified as yellow race by Westerners such as the Chinese and Japanese.

The image of Turks in the American local press offers a common area that can be analyzed in the same context. The texts in question reveal the mentality in which the racist belief that constitutes the basis for hate speech is preserved, but a much harsher and uncompromising style is adopted. This can be explained by the fact that, while the American local press spread orientalist content during the 19th century, and at the same time hosted the anti-Turkish campaigns of the Armenian diaspora throughout the country.

Kaynakça

  • “Asiatics in America”, The Hawaiian Star, No. XII/3955, 23 November 1904, p. 4.
  • BAGGER, Eugene S., “The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire”, New York Tribune, No. LXXIX/26.502, 8 June 1919, p. 2 [img. 82].
  • BALLOU, W. H., “Science Explains the Prussian Ferocity in War”, The Washington Times, No. 10.547, 2 June 1918, p. 2 [img. 28].
  • BALLOU, W. H., “Science Explains Why The Japs Have Those Squinty, Almond Eyes”, The Washington Times, No. 11.393 28 December 1919, p. 6 [img. 28].
  • “Blue Spot on Your Spine? Yes? Then You Are a Mongolian!”, The Omaha Sunday Bee, No. XLII/26, 15 December 1912, p.? [img. 31].
  • “Enver Bey May Be Polish Nobleman”, The Brattleboro Daily Reformer, No. 1/4, 6 March 1913, p. 6.
  • “Enver Pasha Condemned For His Crimes During War By Turkish Court Martial”, The Evening World, Final Edition, 12 July 1919, p. 1.
  • “Faces On The Wall” The National Tribune, No. XIII/20[654], 22 February 1894, p. 8.
  • Gregory Mason, “Turks Say They’re Unbeaten”, The Arizona Republican, No. XXX/172, 17 October 1919, p. 5.
  • “Here and There Around The World” Amarillo Daily News, No. XIII/314, 22 October 1922, p. 7 [img 21].
  • Hippocrates “Airs, Waters, Places”, Hippocrates, Vol .I, trans. William H. S. Jones, William Heinemann Ltd, London 1957, pp. 65-137.
  • Historical Statistics of the US 1975 Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Ed., U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington DC. 1975.
  • “How Our Movies Make The Heathen Harder to Convert”, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, No. 52/94, 8 October 1922, p. 4 [img 32].
  • “Jenghiz Khan”, The Abbeville Press and Banner, No. 51/XXV, 29 May 1878, p. 1.
  • “Mandatory in Armenia Urged” Grand Forks Herald, No. 14/125, 26 May 1919, p. 16.
  • M.W.H. “Unknown Mongols”, The Sun, No. XLVII/217, 4 April 1880, p. 2.
  • “No Help For The Armenians” Journal Courier, No. LXIV/12, 14 January 1896, p. 4.
  • “Notes on New Books”, Weekly National Intelligencer, No. 562, 1 May 1852, p. 4.
  • “Odd Mongolian Habits” The Bolivar Bulletin, No. XIX/5, 20 September 1883, p. 4.
  • [Ref. Mr.] Mitchell “The Inscrutable Turk”, New Haven Morning Journal and Courier, No. LXIII/301, 17 December 1895, p. 3.
  • “Rescuing The Old Testament Lands From The Profane Grasp of The Turks”, The Washington Times, No. 10.609, 4 August 1918, p. ? [img 26].
  • “Russian Annexation in Asia” New-York Daily Tribune, No. XVII/5180, 26 November 1857, p. 6.
  • “Serbia is Home of Many Tribes of Mongolians”, The Cordova Daily Times, No. XIV/124, 30 April 1919, p. 2.
  • “The Bible as a Guide Book”, The Pittsburgh Dispatch, No. 44, 31 July 1889, p. 4.
  • “The Career of The Turks”, Port Gibson Reveille, No. 3/42, 7 June 1854, p. 1.
  • “The Chinese Army”, The Wichita Daily Eagle, No. XII/3, 20 November 1889, p. 6.
  • “The Clean Fighting Turk”, Goodwin's Weekly, No. 27/40, 14 April 1917, p. 5.
  • “The Unspeakable Turk”, Scranton Tribune, ?/?, 15 January 1895, p. 3.
  • “Turkey Defiant”, The Roanoke Daily Times, No. XIV/401, 14 January 1896, p. 4.
  • “Turkey is Stubborn” The San Francisco Call, No. LXXIX/45, 14 January 1896, p. 2.
  • “Was Adam A Negro?” Aberdeen Herald, No. XIII/46, 17 August 1899, p. 6.
  • Watkins, John Elfreth “Fertile Field For The Archeologist Attacting Attention of Scientists”, The Evening Star, No. 17.002, 13 April 1907, p. 3 [img 23].
  • “Why a Jap Can Never Be a White Man”, The Washington Times-Herald, No. 1/3, 3 December 1922, p. 4 [img 65].
  • ARENDT, Hannah, “Race-Thinking Before Racism”, The Review of Politics, Vol. 6/1, Cambridge 1944, pp. 36-73.
  • ÇIRAKMAN, Aslı, “Oryantalizmin Varsayımsal Temelleri: Fikri Sabit İmgelem ve Düşünce Tarihi”, Doğu Batı, Vol. 5/20, Ankara 2002, pp. 181-197.
  • DAVIES, Alan T., Infected Christianity: A Study of Modern Racism, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal 1988.
  • DELANTY, Gerard, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1995.
  • DEVELİ, Tevfik Orkun, “Kum Zencileri: Siber Irkçı Söylemde Türk İmgesi ve Tarihsel Revizyonizm (Stormfront.org Örneği)”, Toplum ve Bilim, Vol. 141 Istanbul 2017, pp. 220-240.
  • EAGLEMAN, David, Incognito-Beynin Gizli Hayatı, çev. Zeynep Arık Tozar, Domingo, Istanbul 2013.
  • ERKAN BALCI, Elif N., “Metnin Bilinçaltı: Edward Said’de Örtük Şarkiyatçılık”, Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol. 22/2, Bursa 2013, pp. 151-167.
  • GREENFELD, Liah, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts 1994.
  • GORDON, Jacob U., “Black Males in the Civil Rights Movement”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 569, Philadelphia 2000, pp. 42-55.
  • HOOK, Derek, “Fanon and the Psychoanalysis of Racism”, Critical Psychology, Juta Academic Publishing, Lansdowne 2004, pp. 114-137.
  • ISAAC, Benjamin, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton University Press, Princeton 2006.
  • KHALID, Adeeb, “Russian History and the Debate over Orientalism”, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, Vol. 1/4, Washington DC. 2000, pp. 691-699.
  • MARCHETTI, Silvio, “Avrupalıların Gözüyle Türkler: Mitos ve Yanlış Anlaşılma”, Dünyada Türk İmgesi, ed. Özlem Kumrular, Kitap Yayınevi, Istanbul 2005, pp. 9-12.
  • ONGUR, Hakan Ö., Minorities of Europeanization: The New Others of European Social Identitiy, Lexington Books, New York 2015.
  • ROGERS, James A., “Darwinism and Social Darwinism”, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 33/2, Philadelphia 1972, pp. 265-280.
  • SAID, Edward W., Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York 1978.
  • SERVANTIE, Alain, “Batılıların Gözünde Türk İmajının Geçirdiği Değişimler: Cehennem Teolojisinden Demokrasi Derslerine”, Dünyada Türk İmgesi, ed. Özlem Kumrular, Kitap Yayınevi, Istanbul 2005, pp. 27-85.
  • STASZAK, Jean-François, “Other/Otherness”, International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Elsevier Science, Oxford 2009, [Author postprint], pp. 43-47.
  • TAJFEL, Henri, “Social Identity and Intergroup Behaviour”, Social Science Information, Vol. 13/2, Paris 1974, pp. 65–93.
  • TOPÇU, Murat, 19. Yüzyıl Rus Edebiyatında Kafkasya İmgesi, Ph.D Thesis, Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul 2016.
  • WÆVER Ole, “Insecurity, Security, and Asecurity in the West European Non-War Community”, Security Communities, ed. Emanuel Adler, et al., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998 pp. 69-118.
  • WEINREICH, Peter, “Rationality and Irrationality in Racial and Ethnic Relations: A Metatheoretical Framework”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 8/4, Surrey 1985, pp. 500-515.
  • YEĞENOĞLU, Meyda, “Avrupa Kimliğinin İdeolojik Arka Planı”, Doğu Batı, Vol. 8/31, Ankara 2005, pp. 89-103.

A SINGLE GRAIN OF INDIGO: A READING ON MONGOLS AND TURKS IN THE U.S. LOCAL PRESS (1850-1923)

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 6, 445 - 462, 20.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.904413

Öz

Irksal ayrım ve üstünlüğe yönelik inancın, toplumsal hatta ahlaki düzeylerde karşılık bulabildiği 19. yüzyılda, beşeriyeti biyolojik bir tür olarak ele alan iddialar birtakım sahtebilimsel kabullere dönüşmüştür. Bu durum, Doğulu toplumlara yönelen barbarlık, despotluk, cehalet, fanatizm ve geri kalmışlık gibi Şarkiyatçı basmakalıplara da kaçınılmaz olarak meşru bir zemin sunmuştur. 18. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Batı medeniyetine içkin gurur ve üstünlük söylemine dayanak teşkil eden Şarkiyatçılık, Doğu’yu ve Doğuluları gerçekliğinden şüphe edilmeyen bir takım ön yargılı kuram ve pratiklerle inceleme, öğrenme ve onlara hükmetme çabalarına metot oluşturmuştur. Doğulu toplumlara yöneltilen ve modern Şarkiyatçılıkla meşruiyet kazandırılmak istenen ırk temelli indirgemeci söylemin analizinde, Amerikan toplumunu Batı’yı temsil eden geniş ölçekli ve heterojen bir örneklem olarak ele almak mümkündür.

Bu çalışma, öteki olma durumu bağlamında sıklıkla Batı toplumlarının karşısında konumlandırılan Türk ve Moğol kimlikleri hakkında, 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Amerikan basınında kendisine yer bulan ve bilimsel olma iddiasındaki birtakım ırkçı basmakalıpların eyaletler düzeyindeki yansımalarını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Amerikan yerel basınında, aralarında tarihsel olarak kadim bağlar bulunan bu iki etnik grup, kimi zaman özgün kimi zaman ise birbirleriyle akraba fakat sahip oldukları ırksal özellikler sebebiyle Batılı toplumlardan her defasında kolaylıkla ayrıştırılan aşağı bir kültürün taşıyıcıları olarak takdim edilmiştir.

19 ve 20. yüzyılların Amerikan yerel basınında Orta Asya ve halklarının imajı, gezi notları, köşe yazıları, siyasi haberler, kısa öyküler ve karikatürlerle temsil edilmiştir. Ekseriyeti sözde bilimsel kaygılar barındıran bu tarz metin ve görseller bazen farklı eyaletlerde eş zamanlı olarak yayımlanmış bazen de eski makaleler ve köşe yazıları konjonktürel olarak yeniden servis edilmiştir. Bunlar arasında, Büyük Savaş yıllarındaki kafatası ölçümlerinden elde edilen düzmece bilimsel verilere dayanarak Almanlar ile Moğollar arasında akrabalık bağı kurmaya çalışan, böylelikle Almanları doğası gereği saldırgan olmakla itham eden metinler bulunmaktadır. Amerikan yerel basınında kendisine yer bulan Alman karşıtı propaganda, bu dönemde Moğol sözcüğünün ırkçı paradigmanın temel referans noktalarından birine dönüştüğünü de ortaya koymaktadır. Gerçekten de Moğol, Moğolluk ve Moğolumsu gibi kavramlar, Çinliler ve Japonlar gibi Batılılar tarafından sarı ırka mensup olarak sınıflandırılan halkların tümünü niteleyecek biçimde anlam genişlemesine uğramıştır.

Amerikan yerel basınındaki Türk imgesi de yine aynı bağlamda incelenebilecek ortak bir alan sunmaktadır. Söz konusu metinler nefret söylemine dayanak teşkil eden ırkçı inancın aynen korunduğu, bununla birlikte çok daha sert ve tavizsiz bir üslubun benimsendiği bir anlayışı gözler önüne sermektedir. Bu durum, Amerikan yerel basının 19. yüzyılda oryantalist içerik yayarken aynı zamanda Ermeni diasporasının Türkiye karşıtı kampanyalarına da ülke çapında ev sahipliği yapmasıyla açıklanabilir.

Kaynakça

  • “Asiatics in America”, The Hawaiian Star, No. XII/3955, 23 November 1904, p. 4.
  • BAGGER, Eugene S., “The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire”, New York Tribune, No. LXXIX/26.502, 8 June 1919, p. 2 [img. 82].
  • BALLOU, W. H., “Science Explains the Prussian Ferocity in War”, The Washington Times, No. 10.547, 2 June 1918, p. 2 [img. 28].
  • BALLOU, W. H., “Science Explains Why The Japs Have Those Squinty, Almond Eyes”, The Washington Times, No. 11.393 28 December 1919, p. 6 [img. 28].
  • “Blue Spot on Your Spine? Yes? Then You Are a Mongolian!”, The Omaha Sunday Bee, No. XLII/26, 15 December 1912, p.? [img. 31].
  • “Enver Bey May Be Polish Nobleman”, The Brattleboro Daily Reformer, No. 1/4, 6 March 1913, p. 6.
  • “Enver Pasha Condemned For His Crimes During War By Turkish Court Martial”, The Evening World, Final Edition, 12 July 1919, p. 1.
  • “Faces On The Wall” The National Tribune, No. XIII/20[654], 22 February 1894, p. 8.
  • Gregory Mason, “Turks Say They’re Unbeaten”, The Arizona Republican, No. XXX/172, 17 October 1919, p. 5.
  • “Here and There Around The World” Amarillo Daily News, No. XIII/314, 22 October 1922, p. 7 [img 21].
  • Hippocrates “Airs, Waters, Places”, Hippocrates, Vol .I, trans. William H. S. Jones, William Heinemann Ltd, London 1957, pp. 65-137.
  • Historical Statistics of the US 1975 Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Ed., U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington DC. 1975.
  • “How Our Movies Make The Heathen Harder to Convert”, The Ogden Standard-Examiner, No. 52/94, 8 October 1922, p. 4 [img 32].
  • “Jenghiz Khan”, The Abbeville Press and Banner, No. 51/XXV, 29 May 1878, p. 1.
  • “Mandatory in Armenia Urged” Grand Forks Herald, No. 14/125, 26 May 1919, p. 16.
  • M.W.H. “Unknown Mongols”, The Sun, No. XLVII/217, 4 April 1880, p. 2.
  • “No Help For The Armenians” Journal Courier, No. LXIV/12, 14 January 1896, p. 4.
  • “Notes on New Books”, Weekly National Intelligencer, No. 562, 1 May 1852, p. 4.
  • “Odd Mongolian Habits” The Bolivar Bulletin, No. XIX/5, 20 September 1883, p. 4.
  • [Ref. Mr.] Mitchell “The Inscrutable Turk”, New Haven Morning Journal and Courier, No. LXIII/301, 17 December 1895, p. 3.
  • “Rescuing The Old Testament Lands From The Profane Grasp of The Turks”, The Washington Times, No. 10.609, 4 August 1918, p. ? [img 26].
  • “Russian Annexation in Asia” New-York Daily Tribune, No. XVII/5180, 26 November 1857, p. 6.
  • “Serbia is Home of Many Tribes of Mongolians”, The Cordova Daily Times, No. XIV/124, 30 April 1919, p. 2.
  • “The Bible as a Guide Book”, The Pittsburgh Dispatch, No. 44, 31 July 1889, p. 4.
  • “The Career of The Turks”, Port Gibson Reveille, No. 3/42, 7 June 1854, p. 1.
  • “The Chinese Army”, The Wichita Daily Eagle, No. XII/3, 20 November 1889, p. 6.
  • “The Clean Fighting Turk”, Goodwin's Weekly, No. 27/40, 14 April 1917, p. 5.
  • “The Unspeakable Turk”, Scranton Tribune, ?/?, 15 January 1895, p. 3.
  • “Turkey Defiant”, The Roanoke Daily Times, No. XIV/401, 14 January 1896, p. 4.
  • “Turkey is Stubborn” The San Francisco Call, No. LXXIX/45, 14 January 1896, p. 2.
  • “Was Adam A Negro?” Aberdeen Herald, No. XIII/46, 17 August 1899, p. 6.
  • Watkins, John Elfreth “Fertile Field For The Archeologist Attacting Attention of Scientists”, The Evening Star, No. 17.002, 13 April 1907, p. 3 [img 23].
  • “Why a Jap Can Never Be a White Man”, The Washington Times-Herald, No. 1/3, 3 December 1922, p. 4 [img 65].
  • ARENDT, Hannah, “Race-Thinking Before Racism”, The Review of Politics, Vol. 6/1, Cambridge 1944, pp. 36-73.
  • ÇIRAKMAN, Aslı, “Oryantalizmin Varsayımsal Temelleri: Fikri Sabit İmgelem ve Düşünce Tarihi”, Doğu Batı, Vol. 5/20, Ankara 2002, pp. 181-197.
  • DAVIES, Alan T., Infected Christianity: A Study of Modern Racism, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal 1988.
  • DELANTY, Gerard, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1995.
  • DEVELİ, Tevfik Orkun, “Kum Zencileri: Siber Irkçı Söylemde Türk İmgesi ve Tarihsel Revizyonizm (Stormfront.org Örneği)”, Toplum ve Bilim, Vol. 141 Istanbul 2017, pp. 220-240.
  • EAGLEMAN, David, Incognito-Beynin Gizli Hayatı, çev. Zeynep Arık Tozar, Domingo, Istanbul 2013.
  • ERKAN BALCI, Elif N., “Metnin Bilinçaltı: Edward Said’de Örtük Şarkiyatçılık”, Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol. 22/2, Bursa 2013, pp. 151-167.
  • GREENFELD, Liah, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts 1994.
  • GORDON, Jacob U., “Black Males in the Civil Rights Movement”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 569, Philadelphia 2000, pp. 42-55.
  • HOOK, Derek, “Fanon and the Psychoanalysis of Racism”, Critical Psychology, Juta Academic Publishing, Lansdowne 2004, pp. 114-137.
  • ISAAC, Benjamin, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton University Press, Princeton 2006.
  • KHALID, Adeeb, “Russian History and the Debate over Orientalism”, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, Vol. 1/4, Washington DC. 2000, pp. 691-699.
  • MARCHETTI, Silvio, “Avrupalıların Gözüyle Türkler: Mitos ve Yanlış Anlaşılma”, Dünyada Türk İmgesi, ed. Özlem Kumrular, Kitap Yayınevi, Istanbul 2005, pp. 9-12.
  • ONGUR, Hakan Ö., Minorities of Europeanization: The New Others of European Social Identitiy, Lexington Books, New York 2015.
  • ROGERS, James A., “Darwinism and Social Darwinism”, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 33/2, Philadelphia 1972, pp. 265-280.
  • SAID, Edward W., Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York 1978.
  • SERVANTIE, Alain, “Batılıların Gözünde Türk İmajının Geçirdiği Değişimler: Cehennem Teolojisinden Demokrasi Derslerine”, Dünyada Türk İmgesi, ed. Özlem Kumrular, Kitap Yayınevi, Istanbul 2005, pp. 27-85.
  • STASZAK, Jean-François, “Other/Otherness”, International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Elsevier Science, Oxford 2009, [Author postprint], pp. 43-47.
  • TAJFEL, Henri, “Social Identity and Intergroup Behaviour”, Social Science Information, Vol. 13/2, Paris 1974, pp. 65–93.
  • TOPÇU, Murat, 19. Yüzyıl Rus Edebiyatında Kafkasya İmgesi, Ph.D Thesis, Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul 2016.
  • WÆVER Ole, “Insecurity, Security, and Asecurity in the West European Non-War Community”, Security Communities, ed. Emanuel Adler, et al., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998 pp. 69-118.
  • WEINREICH, Peter, “Rationality and Irrationality in Racial and Ethnic Relations: A Metatheoretical Framework”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 8/4, Surrey 1985, pp. 500-515.
  • YEĞENOĞLU, Meyda, “Avrupa Kimliğinin İdeolojik Arka Planı”, Doğu Batı, Vol. 8/31, Ankara 2005, pp. 89-103.
Toplam 56 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Tevfik Orkun Develi 0000-0003-2768-111X

Yayımlanma Tarihi 20 Temmuz 2021
Gönderilme Tarihi 27 Mart 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 3 Sayı: 6

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Develi, Tevfik Orkun. “A SINGLE GRAIN OF INDIGO: A READING ON MONGOLS AND TURKS IN THE U.S. LOCAL PRESS (1850-1923)”. Genel Türk Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi 3, sy. 6 (Temmuz 2021): 445-62. https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.904413.

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