Yükseköğretimde Öğrenci Bağlılığı: Kişisel ve Üniversite Deneyimi Farklılıkları
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 24 - 38, 30.04.2024
Burcu Bilir Koca
,
Engin Karadağ
Öz
Bu araştırmanın amacı, Türk yükseköğretim sisteminde öğrenci bağlılığının ulusal düzeyde hangi seviyede gerçekleştiğini belirlemek ve
öğrencilerin kişisel ve üniversite deneyimlerine göre öğrenci bağlılığını incelemektir. Araştırmada nicel araştırma yaklaşımlarından tarama
modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemi ise, tabakalı örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak belirlenen 11 devlet üniversitesinde öğrenim
gören 3,093 lisans öğrencisinden meydana gelmektedir. Araştırmada Yükseköğretim Öğrenci Bağlılığı Ölçeği kullanılarak elde edilen
veriler betimsel t-testi ve ANOVA ile çözümlenmiştir. Sonuçlar, üniversite öğrencilerinin yükseköğretim öğrenci bağlılığı ölçeğinden
aldıkları puanların orta düzeyde olduğu göstermiştir. Ayrıca öğrencilerin yükseköğretim öğrenci bağlılığı ölçeğinden aldıkları puanlar
kişisel ve üniversite deneyimlerine yönelik özelliklerine göre anlamlı farklılıklar göstermektedir.
Kaynakça
- Aksu, M., Çivitçi, A. ve Duy, B. (2008). Yükseköğ retim
öğ rencilerinin öğ retim elemanlarının ders uygulamaları ve sınıf
içi davranışlarına ilişkin görüş leri. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim
Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(16), 17-42.
- Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008).
Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and
methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the
Schools, 45(5), 369-386.
- Arndt, J. G. (2014). Comprehending male and female levels of
engagement in subsets of the national survey of student
engagement: Explicating the dynamics of gender role conflict
as a medıating factor for males. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI.
- Arslantaş, H. (2011). Öğ retim elemanlarının öğ retim stratejileriyöntem
ve teknikleri, iletişim ve ölçme değerlendirme yeterliklerine
yönelik öğ renci görüş leri. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(15), 487-506.
- Arslantaş, H., Cı̇noğlu, M. ve Yıldız, M. (2012). Öğ retim
elemanlarının sınıf içi öğ retim becerilerinin öğ renci görüş lerine
göre değerlendirilmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 13(3), 67-90.
- Audas, R., & Willms, J. D. (2001). Engagement and dropping
out of school: A life course perspective. Hull, Québec:
Applied Research Branch Strategic Policy Human Resources
Development Canada. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.466.7579&rep=rep1&type=pdf
adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Axelson, R. D., & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(1), 38-43. doi:
10.1080/00091383.2011.533096.
- Başö ren, M. (2015). Lise öğ rencilerinin matematik dersine
katılımının, duygu düzenleme, algılanan araçsallık, umut ve
başarı değişkenleriyle olan ilişkisi. (Yayımlanmamış doktora
tezi). Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu.
- Chiu, T. K. F. (2023). Student engagement in K-12 online learning amid
COVID-19: A qualitative approach from a self-determination
theory perspective. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(6),
3326-3339, DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2021.1926289
- Cinches, M. F. C., Russell, R. L. V., Chavez, J. C., & Ortiz, R. O. (2017).
Student engagement: Defining teacher effectiveness and
teacher engagement. Journal of Institutional Research South
East Asia, 15(1), 5-19.
- Coates, H. (2007). A model of online and general campus-based
student engagement. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher
Education, 32(2), 121-141.
- Connell, J., Spencer, M., & Aber, J. (1994). Educational risk and
resilience in african-american youth: Context, self, action,
and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65(2), 493-506.
doi:10.2307/1131398.
- Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting,
and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson.
- Ergün, E. ve Kurnaz, F. B. (2017). Çevrimiçi öğ renme ortamlarında
sınıf topluluğu hissi ve öğ renci bağlılığı arasındaki ilişki.
Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 25(4), 1515- 1532.
- Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School
engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence.
Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109.
- Frydenberg, E., Ainley, M., & Russell, V. J. (2005). Schooling issues
digest: Student motivation and engagement. The Australian
Government Department of Education, Science and Training
(DEST). http://web.archive.org/web/20120721015202/http://
www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/publications_
resources/schooling_issues_digest/schooling_issues_digest_
motivation_engagement.htm#Introduction adresinden
erişilmiştir.
- Furlong, M. J., & Christenson, S. L. (2008). Engaging students at
school and with learning: A relevant construct for all students.
Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 365-368. doi:10.1002/
pits.20302.
- Groccia, J. E. (2018). What is student engagement?. New Directions
For Teaching and Learning, 154, 11-20. doi: 10.1002/tl.
- Günüç , S. (2013). Teknolojinin öğ renci bağlılığındaki rolü ve derste
teknoloji kullanımı ile öğ renci bağlılığı arasındaki ilişkilerin
incelenmesi. (Doktora tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.
- Harper, S. R., Carini, R. M., Bridges, B. K., & Hayek, J. C. (2004).
Gender differences in student engagement among African
American undergraduates at historically Black colleges and
universities. Journal of College Student Development, 45(3),
271-284. doi: 10.1353/csd.2004.0035.
- Hopwood, B., Dyment, J., Downing, J., Stone, C., Muir, T., Freeman,
E., Milthorpe, N. (2023). Keeping the party in full swing:
Findings on online student engagement with teacher education
students. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 71(1),
40-58, DOI: 10.1080/07377363.2021.1966922
- Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2002). Being (dis)engaged in educationally
purposeful activities: The influences of student and institutional
characteristics. Research in Higher Education, 43(5), 555-575.
- Kandiko, C. B. (2008). Student engagement in two countries:
A comparative study using National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) data. Journal of Institutional Research,
14(1), 71-86.
- Karadağ, E. ve Yücel, C. (2018). Türkiye üniversite memnuniyet
araştırması 2018. Eskişehir: ÜNİAR Yayınları. doi: 10.13140/
RG.2.2.13111.11683.
- Krause, K. (2005). Understanding and promoting student
engagement in university learning communities. ‘Engaged,
inert or otherwise occupied?. Victoria: The University of
Melbourne, Centre for the Study of Higher Education. https://
www.liberty.edu/media/3425/teaching_resources/Stud_eng.
pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Krause, K. L., & Coates, H. (2008) Students’ engagement in firstyear
university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education,
33(5), 493-505. doi:10.1080/02602930701698892.
- Korobova, N. (2012). A comparative study of student engagement,
satisfaction, and academic success among international
and American students. (Doctoral dissertation). Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa.
- Korobova, N., & Starobin, S. S. (2015). A comparative study of
student engagement, satisfaction, and academic success
among international and american students. Journal of
International Students, 5(1), 72-85.
- Kuh, G. D. (2003). What we’re learning about student engagement
from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 35(2), 24-32. doi:
10.1080/00091380309604090.
- Kuh G. D. (2009a). What student affairs professionals need to
know about student engagement. Journal of College Student
Development, 50, 683-706.
- Kuh, G. D. (2009b). The National Survey of Student Engagement:
Conceptual and empirical foundations. New Directions for
Institutional Research, 141, 5-20.
- Marks, H. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity:
Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years.
American Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 153-184.
- Newmann, F. M. (1989). Student engagement and high school
reform. Educational Leadership, 46(5), 34-36.
National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2019h). NSSE
2019 U.S. Engagement indicator descriptive statistics by class
and sex. http://nsse.indiana.edu/2019_institutional_report/
pdf/EngagementIndicators/EI% 20-%20Sex.pdf adresinden
erişilmiştir.
- National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2019i). NSSE 2017
& 2018 Canadian engagement indicator descriptive statistics
by class and sex. http://nsse.indiana.edu/2018_institutional_
report/pdf/canada/NSSE17_18%20Canadian%20Grands%20
EI_bySex.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Osagie, S. E. (2016). Student engagement and academic success
in veterans’ postsecondary education. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.
- Osterman, F. K. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school
community. Review of Educational Research. 70(3), 323-367.
- Öz, Y. (2019). Yükseköğ retimde öğ renci katılımı. (Yayımlanmamış
doktora tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.
- Park, Y. S. (2005). Student engagement and classroom variables
in improving mathematics achievement. Asia Pacific Education
Review, 6(1), 87-97.
- Parsons, J., & Taylor, L. (2012). Student engagement: What do we
know and what should we do. Edmonton, Alta: University of
Alberta.
- Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects
students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Peck, L. (2017). The correlation between the National Survey
of Student Engagement indicators and first year student
achievement, satisfaction, and retention. (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). Old Domininion University, Norfolk, VA.
- Phillips, G. C. (2013). A comparative study of international student
engagement and success based on race/ethnicity, gender,
and institutional type. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
- Pike, G. R., Kuh, G. D., & Massa-McKinley, R. (2008). Firstyear
students’ employment, engagement, and academic
achievement: Untangling the relationship between work and
grades. Naspa Journal, 45(4), 560-582. doi: 10.2202/1949-
6605.2011.
- Salas-Pilco, S. Z., Yang, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Student engagement
in online learning in Latin American higher education
during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 53, 593–619. https://doi.
org/10.1111/bjet.13190
- Sarıtepeci, M. (2012). İlköğretim 7. Sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde
harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamlarının öğrencilerin derse
katılımına, akademik başarısına, derse karşı tutumuna ve
motivasyonuna etkisi. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Gazi
Üniversitesi, Ankara.
- Sarwar, M., & Ashrafi, G. M. (2014). Students’ commitment,
engagement and locus of control as predictor of academic
achievement at higher education level. Current Issues in
Education, 17(3), 1-10.
- Schlechty, P.C. (2001). Shaking up the schoolhouse: How to support
and sustain educational innovation. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
- Schlinsog, J. A. (2010). Engagement in the first year as a predictor
of academic achievement and persistence of first-year
students. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY.
- Shulman, L. (2005). Making differences: A table of learning.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 34(6), 36-44. doi:
10.1080/00091380209605567.
- Smith, S. A. (2019). Student engagement and retention of minority
students in a faith-based institution. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA.
- Trowler, V. (2010). Student engagement literature review. York:
The Higher Education Academy.
- Zhao, C. M., Kuh, G. D., & Carini, R. M. (2005). A comparison of
international student and American student engagement
in effective educational practices. The Journal of Higher
Education, 76(2), 209-231.
Student Engagement in Higher Education: Differences in Personal and University Experience
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 14 Sayı: 1, 24 - 38, 30.04.2024
Burcu Bilir Koca
,
Engin Karadağ
Öz
The purpose of this study is to determine the level of student engagement in higher education and to examine student engagement
according to students’ personal and university experiences. The research was structured according to the survey model from quantitative
research approaches. The sample of the study consisted of 3093 students studying in 11 state universities selected by stratified sampling
method. National Survey of Student Engagement was used as data collection tools in the study. The data obtained using the National
Survey of Student Engagement were analysed by descriptive t-test and ANOVA. It was determined that the student engagement scores of
university students are medium level. Student engagement scores of university students showed significant differences according to their
personal and university experience
Kaynakça
- Aksu, M., Çivitçi, A. ve Duy, B. (2008). Yükseköğ retim
öğ rencilerinin öğ retim elemanlarının ders uygulamaları ve sınıf
içi davranışlarına ilişkin görüş leri. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim
Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(16), 17-42.
- Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008).
Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and
methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the
Schools, 45(5), 369-386.
- Arndt, J. G. (2014). Comprehending male and female levels of
engagement in subsets of the national survey of student
engagement: Explicating the dynamics of gender role conflict
as a medıating factor for males. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI.
- Arslantaş, H. (2011). Öğ retim elemanlarının öğ retim stratejileriyöntem
ve teknikleri, iletişim ve ölçme değerlendirme yeterliklerine
yönelik öğ renci görüş leri. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(15), 487-506.
- Arslantaş, H., Cı̇noğlu, M. ve Yıldız, M. (2012). Öğ retim
elemanlarının sınıf içi öğ retim becerilerinin öğ renci görüş lerine
göre değerlendirilmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 13(3), 67-90.
- Audas, R., & Willms, J. D. (2001). Engagement and dropping
out of school: A life course perspective. Hull, Québec:
Applied Research Branch Strategic Policy Human Resources
Development Canada. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.466.7579&rep=rep1&type=pdf
adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Axelson, R. D., & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(1), 38-43. doi:
10.1080/00091383.2011.533096.
- Başö ren, M. (2015). Lise öğ rencilerinin matematik dersine
katılımının, duygu düzenleme, algılanan araçsallık, umut ve
başarı değişkenleriyle olan ilişkisi. (Yayımlanmamış doktora
tezi). Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu.
- Chiu, T. K. F. (2023). Student engagement in K-12 online learning amid
COVID-19: A qualitative approach from a self-determination
theory perspective. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(6),
3326-3339, DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2021.1926289
- Cinches, M. F. C., Russell, R. L. V., Chavez, J. C., & Ortiz, R. O. (2017).
Student engagement: Defining teacher effectiveness and
teacher engagement. Journal of Institutional Research South
East Asia, 15(1), 5-19.
- Coates, H. (2007). A model of online and general campus-based
student engagement. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher
Education, 32(2), 121-141.
- Connell, J., Spencer, M., & Aber, J. (1994). Educational risk and
resilience in african-american youth: Context, self, action,
and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65(2), 493-506.
doi:10.2307/1131398.
- Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting,
and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson.
- Ergün, E. ve Kurnaz, F. B. (2017). Çevrimiçi öğ renme ortamlarında
sınıf topluluğu hissi ve öğ renci bağlılığı arasındaki ilişki.
Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 25(4), 1515- 1532.
- Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School
engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence.
Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109.
- Frydenberg, E., Ainley, M., & Russell, V. J. (2005). Schooling issues
digest: Student motivation and engagement. The Australian
Government Department of Education, Science and Training
(DEST). http://web.archive.org/web/20120721015202/http://
www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/publications_
resources/schooling_issues_digest/schooling_issues_digest_
motivation_engagement.htm#Introduction adresinden
erişilmiştir.
- Furlong, M. J., & Christenson, S. L. (2008). Engaging students at
school and with learning: A relevant construct for all students.
Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 365-368. doi:10.1002/
pits.20302.
- Groccia, J. E. (2018). What is student engagement?. New Directions
For Teaching and Learning, 154, 11-20. doi: 10.1002/tl.
- Günüç , S. (2013). Teknolojinin öğ renci bağlılığındaki rolü ve derste
teknoloji kullanımı ile öğ renci bağlılığı arasındaki ilişkilerin
incelenmesi. (Doktora tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.
- Harper, S. R., Carini, R. M., Bridges, B. K., & Hayek, J. C. (2004).
Gender differences in student engagement among African
American undergraduates at historically Black colleges and
universities. Journal of College Student Development, 45(3),
271-284. doi: 10.1353/csd.2004.0035.
- Hopwood, B., Dyment, J., Downing, J., Stone, C., Muir, T., Freeman,
E., Milthorpe, N. (2023). Keeping the party in full swing:
Findings on online student engagement with teacher education
students. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 71(1),
40-58, DOI: 10.1080/07377363.2021.1966922
- Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2002). Being (dis)engaged in educationally
purposeful activities: The influences of student and institutional
characteristics. Research in Higher Education, 43(5), 555-575.
- Kandiko, C. B. (2008). Student engagement in two countries:
A comparative study using National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) data. Journal of Institutional Research,
14(1), 71-86.
- Karadağ, E. ve Yücel, C. (2018). Türkiye üniversite memnuniyet
araştırması 2018. Eskişehir: ÜNİAR Yayınları. doi: 10.13140/
RG.2.2.13111.11683.
- Krause, K. (2005). Understanding and promoting student
engagement in university learning communities. ‘Engaged,
inert or otherwise occupied?. Victoria: The University of
Melbourne, Centre for the Study of Higher Education. https://
www.liberty.edu/media/3425/teaching_resources/Stud_eng.
pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Krause, K. L., & Coates, H. (2008) Students’ engagement in firstyear
university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education,
33(5), 493-505. doi:10.1080/02602930701698892.
- Korobova, N. (2012). A comparative study of student engagement,
satisfaction, and academic success among international
and American students. (Doctoral dissertation). Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa.
- Korobova, N., & Starobin, S. S. (2015). A comparative study of
student engagement, satisfaction, and academic success
among international and american students. Journal of
International Students, 5(1), 72-85.
- Kuh, G. D. (2003). What we’re learning about student engagement
from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 35(2), 24-32. doi:
10.1080/00091380309604090.
- Kuh G. D. (2009a). What student affairs professionals need to
know about student engagement. Journal of College Student
Development, 50, 683-706.
- Kuh, G. D. (2009b). The National Survey of Student Engagement:
Conceptual and empirical foundations. New Directions for
Institutional Research, 141, 5-20.
- Marks, H. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity:
Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years.
American Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 153-184.
- Newmann, F. M. (1989). Student engagement and high school
reform. Educational Leadership, 46(5), 34-36.
National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2019h). NSSE
2019 U.S. Engagement indicator descriptive statistics by class
and sex. http://nsse.indiana.edu/2019_institutional_report/
pdf/EngagementIndicators/EI% 20-%20Sex.pdf adresinden
erişilmiştir.
- National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2019i). NSSE 2017
& 2018 Canadian engagement indicator descriptive statistics
by class and sex. http://nsse.indiana.edu/2018_institutional_
report/pdf/canada/NSSE17_18%20Canadian%20Grands%20
EI_bySex.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.
- Osagie, S. E. (2016). Student engagement and academic success
in veterans’ postsecondary education. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.
- Osterman, F. K. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school
community. Review of Educational Research. 70(3), 323-367.
- Öz, Y. (2019). Yükseköğ retimde öğ renci katılımı. (Yayımlanmamış
doktora tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.
- Park, Y. S. (2005). Student engagement and classroom variables
in improving mathematics achievement. Asia Pacific Education
Review, 6(1), 87-97.
- Parsons, J., & Taylor, L. (2012). Student engagement: What do we
know and what should we do. Edmonton, Alta: University of
Alberta.
- Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects
students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Peck, L. (2017). The correlation between the National Survey
of Student Engagement indicators and first year student
achievement, satisfaction, and retention. (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). Old Domininion University, Norfolk, VA.
- Phillips, G. C. (2013). A comparative study of international student
engagement and success based on race/ethnicity, gender,
and institutional type. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
- Pike, G. R., Kuh, G. D., & Massa-McKinley, R. (2008). Firstyear
students’ employment, engagement, and academic
achievement: Untangling the relationship between work and
grades. Naspa Journal, 45(4), 560-582. doi: 10.2202/1949-
6605.2011.
- Salas-Pilco, S. Z., Yang, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Student engagement
in online learning in Latin American higher education
during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 53, 593–619. https://doi.
org/10.1111/bjet.13190
- Sarıtepeci, M. (2012). İlköğretim 7. Sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde
harmanlanmış öğrenme ortamlarının öğrencilerin derse
katılımına, akademik başarısına, derse karşı tutumuna ve
motivasyonuna etkisi. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Gazi
Üniversitesi, Ankara.
- Sarwar, M., & Ashrafi, G. M. (2014). Students’ commitment,
engagement and locus of control as predictor of academic
achievement at higher education level. Current Issues in
Education, 17(3), 1-10.
- Schlechty, P.C. (2001). Shaking up the schoolhouse: How to support
and sustain educational innovation. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
- Schlinsog, J. A. (2010). Engagement in the first year as a predictor
of academic achievement and persistence of first-year
students. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY.
- Shulman, L. (2005). Making differences: A table of learning.
Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 34(6), 36-44. doi:
10.1080/00091380209605567.
- Smith, S. A. (2019). Student engagement and retention of minority
students in a faith-based institution. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA.
- Trowler, V. (2010). Student engagement literature review. York:
The Higher Education Academy.
- Zhao, C. M., Kuh, G. D., & Carini, R. M. (2005). A comparison of
international student and American student engagement
in effective educational practices. The Journal of Higher
Education, 76(2), 209-231.