Social Class and Classism: Reflections on Counseling

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 760 - 782, 30.06.2023

Uğur Şeker , İbrahim Keklik

https://doi.org/10.47793/hp.1266728

Cited By: 1

Öz

Disadvantaged groups are at greater risk for mental health issues compared to privileged groups. A rich variety of studies has explored factors leading to disadvantageous positions in societies and how it affects the life of individuals. These studies report that individuals may be in a disadvantageous position in terms of factors such as religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability, poverty and age. Of the major factors leading to disadvantageous positions, social class and classism seem to be neglected in spite of the fact that disadvantaged persons suffer from the consequences of the socio-economic gap between the social classes. Neglection of these issues withhold disadvantaged persons from mental health services. For this reason, mental health professionals should consider the socio-economic and class-based parameters of the clients. This study is a review aiming to improve psychological counselors' awareness of the concepts of social class and classism and the reflection of these concepts in the counseling process. First, the concepts of social class and classism were defined, then the resulting difficulties that could be experienced in the counseling process were mentioned. Finally, suggestions were presented to counselors.

Anahtar Kelimeler

social class, classism, counseling

Sosyal Sınıf ve Sınıfçılık: Psikolojik Danışmadaki Yansımaları

Öz

Dezavantajlı gruplar, dezavantajlı olmayan bireylerle karşılaştırıldığında ruh sağlığı bakımından daha yüksek risk taşımaktadır. Dezavantajı oluşturan unsurun ne olduğu ve bireylerin hayatını nasıl etkilediği konusunda birçok araştırma yapılmıştır. Bireylerin dini yönelim, etnik köken, cinsel yönelim, engellilik, yoksulluk, yaş gibi faktörler bakımından dezavantajlı konumda olabilecekleri sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. Sosyal sınıf ve sınıfçılık kavramları ise toplumsal tabakalar arasındaki sosyo-ekonomik refah farkının dezavantajlı bireylerin hayatına olumsuz yansımalarına rağmen araştırma sahasında ihmal edilmiş görünmektedir. Sosyal sınıf farklılıklarının ve bu farklılıkların yarattığı etkilerin ihmal edilmesi, dezavantajlı bireylerin ruh sağlığı hizmetlerinden işlevsel biçimde yararlanamamasına ortam hazırlamaktadır. Bu nedenle ruh sağlığı uzmanlarının hizmet sundukları grupların sosyo-ekonomik statülerini ve sınıfsal parametrelerini göz ardı etmemeleri gerekmektedir. Bu çalışma psikolojik danışmanların sosyal sınıf ve sınıfçılık kavramları, bu kavramların psikolojik danışma sürecine yansıma biçimleri hakkındaki farkındalıklarının iyileştirilmesinin amaçlandığı bir derleme çalışmasıdır. İlk olarak sosyal sınıf ve sınıfçılık kavramları tanımlanmış, ardından psikolojik danışma sürecinde yaşanabilecek zorluklara değinilmiştir. Son olarak psikolojik danışmanlar için öneriler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

sosyal sınıf, sınıfçılık, psikolojik danışma

Kaynakça

• Afyonoğlu, M. F. (2021). Sosyal hizmetin sorunlarına twitter üzerinden bakmak: Eğitim ve istihdam sorunu. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 32(3), 1021-1044. https://doi.org/10.33417/tsh.915534
• American Counseling Association, 2014. 2014 ACA code of ethics. https://www.counseling.org/resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf
• American Psychological Association, 2019. APA GUIDELINES for Psychological Practice for People with low-Income and Economic Marginalization. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-low-income.pdf
• Aydoğan, M. (2022). Kültüre duyarlı okul psikolojik danışmanlığında bir teknik: Kültürel konulara ön ayak olmak. Ege Eğitim Dergisi, 23(3), 370-383. https://doi.org/10.12984/egeefd.1072354
• Becker, J. C., Kraus, M. W., & Rheinschmidt-Same, M. (2017). Cultural expressions of social class and their implications for group-related beliefs and behaviors. Journal of Social Issues, 73, 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12209
• Belle, D., Doucet, J., Harris, J., Miller, J., & Tan, E. (2000). Who is rich? Who is happy? American Psychologist, 55(10), 1160-1161. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.10.1160
• Boyacı, M.(2018, 28 Haziran – 1 Temmuz). Türkiye’de psikolojik danışman eğitimi ve karşılaşılan sorunlar: güncel bir durum değerlendirmesi [Kongrede sunulan bildiri]. Uluslararası Eğitim Kongresi, İstanbul, Türkiye. https://l24.im/zcX5d
• Bullock, H. E., Fraser Wyche, K. ve Williams, W. R. (2001). Media images of the poor. Journal of Social Issues, 57(2), 229-246. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00210
• Cavalhieri, K. E., & Chwalisz, K. (2020). Development and initial validation of the perceived classism experiences scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(3), 310-341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019899395
• Choi, N. Y., & Miller, M. J. (2018). Social class, classism, stigma, and college students’ attitudes toward counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 46(6), 761-785. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000018796789
• Clark, M., Ausloos, C., Delaney, C., Waters, L., Salpietro, L., & Tippett, H. (2020). Best practices for counseling clients experiencing poverty: A grounded theory. Journal of Counseling & Development, 98(3), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12323
• Coleman, J.J.(2021). Trainee attitudes toward social class as predictors of clinical decision making: exploring the effects of classism in psychotherapy [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Denver.
• Corey, G. (2008). Psikolojik danışma, psikoterapi kuram ve uygulamaları (T. Ergene, Çev.). Mentis Yayınları.
• Cozzarelli, C., Wilkinson, A. V., & Tagler, M. J. (2001). Attitudes toward the poor and attributions for poverty. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 207-228. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00209
• Crumb, L., Haskins, N., Dean, L., & Avent Harris, J. (2020). Illuminating social-class identity: The persistence of working-class African American women doctoral students. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 13(3), 215-227. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000109
• Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Araştırma Merkezi. (2022, 17 Ekim). Eylül 2022’de açlık sınırı 7 bin 300 TL, yoksulluk sınırı 25 bin 252 TL! https://arastirma.disk.org.tr/?p=9358
• Dragano, N., Reuter, M., & Berger, K. (2022). Increase in mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic--the role of occupational and financial strains: an analysis of the german national cohort (NAKO) Study. Deutsches Aerzteblatt International, 2022(119), 179-187. DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.m2022.0133
• Easterbrook, M. J., Kuppens, T., & Manstead, A. S. (2020). Socioeconomic status and the structure of the self‐concept. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(1), 66-86. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12334
• Eisenberg, D., Golberstein, E., & Gollust, S. E. (2007). Help-seeking and access to mental health care in a university student population. Medical Care, 45(7), 594-601. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40221479
• Fiske, S. T. (2007). On prejudice & the brain. Daedalus, 136(1), 156-159. https://doi.org/10.1162/daed.2007.136.1.156
• Garrison, Y. L., Rice, A., & Liu, W. M. (2021). The American meritocracy myth stress: Scale development and initial validation. The Counseling Psychologist, 49(1), 80-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000020962072
• Greenleaf, A. T., Ratts, M. J., & Song, S. Y. (2016). Rediscovering classism: The humanist vision for economic justice. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 56(6), 646-664 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167816652525 .
• Gözen, Ö., & Buz, S. (2020). Türkiye’de koruyucu ve önleyici ruh sağlığı uygulamaları: Sosyal hizmet uzmanları ve hastaların deneyimlerine dair nitel bir araştırma. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 12, 18-42. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.662628
• Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 58, 145-173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605
• Hernandez, J.O. (2013). Development and psychometric validation of the Perceived Classism Scales: measures of perceived social class discrimination [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Iowa.
• Hutchison, B. (2011). The influence of perceived poverty and academic achievement on school counselor conceptualization. Equity & Excellence in Education, 44(2), 203-220. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2011.561740
• Jordan, J. A., Lawler, J. R., & Bosson, J. K. (2021). Ambivalent classism: The importance of assessing hostile and benevolent ideologies about poor people. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 43(1), 46-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2020.1828084
• Joy, E.E.(2022). Development and validation of a scale measuring psychologists’ perceived competency with clients experiencing low income or economıc marginalization [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Purdue University.
• Kağnıcı, D.Y.(2019). Kültür ve psikolojik danışma. Pegem Akademi Yayınları.
• Kaplan, S. A., Calman, N. S., Golub, M., Davis, J. H., Ruddock, C., & Billings, J. (2006). Racial and ethnic disparities in health: A view from the South Bronx. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(1), 116-127. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2006.0026
• Keklik, İ. (2022). Internationalization of counseling: Integrating the Western theories and practices into the local ways. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 2022, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12252
• Köylüoğlu, B., & Yalçınkaya-Alkar, Ö. (2021). Psikoterapistlerin mesleki yeterliliğini belirleyici bazı değişkenler: Yeterliliğinin değerlendirilmesi, kişisel terapi, öz bakım, duygusal yeterlilik. Muhakeme Dergisi, 4(1), 14-27. DOI: 10.33817/muhakeme.844422
• Kraus, M. W., Park, J. W., & Tan, J. J. (2017). Signs of social class: The experience of economic inequality in everyday life. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(3), 422-435. DOI: 10.1177/1745691616673192
• Kraus, M. W., & Stephens, N. M. (2012). A road map for an emerging psychology of social class. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(9), 642-656. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00453.x
• Kraus, M. W., Côté, S., & Keltner, D. (2010). Social class, contextualism, and empathic accuracy. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1716-1723. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610387613
• Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., & Keltner, D. (2009). Social class, sense of control, and social explanation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 992-1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016357
• Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., Mendoza-Denton, R., Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Keltner, D. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychological Review, 119(3), 546-572. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028756
• Kuriloff, P., & Reichert, M. C. (2003). Boys of class, boys of color: Negotiating the academic and social geography of an elite independent school. Journal of Social Issues, 59(4), 751-769. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00088.x
• Langhout, R. D., Drake, P., & Rosselli, F. (2009). Classism in the university setting: Examining student antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2(3), 166-181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016209
• Langhout, R. D., Rosselli, F., & Feinstein, J. (2007). Assessing classism in academic settings. The Review of Higher Education, 30(2), 145-184. doi: 10.1353/rhe.2006.0073
• Levy, L. B., & O'Hara, M. W. (2010). Psychotherapeutic interventions for depressed, low-income women: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 934-950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.06.006
• Liu, W. M. (2012). Developing a social class and classism consciousness. In E.M. Altmeier, & J.C. Hansen (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of counseling psychology içinde (s..326-345), New York: Oxford University Press.
• Liu, W. M. (2013). Introduction to social class and classism in counseling psychology. W.M. Liu (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of social class in counseling (pp. 3-20). Oxford University Press. https://l24.im/iUu1
• Liu, W. M., & Ali, S. R. (2005). Addressing social class and classism in vocational theory and practice: Extending the emancipatory communitarian approach. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(2), 189-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000004272269
• Liu, W. M., Soleck, G., Hopps, J., Dunston, K., & Pickett Jr, T. (2004). A new framework to understand social class in counseling: The social class worldview model and modern classism theory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 32(2), 95-122. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2004.tb00364.x
• Liu, W.M.(2011). Social class and classism in the helping professions. Sage Publications.
• Lott, B. (2002). Cognitive and behavioral distancing from the poor. American Psychologist, 57(2), 100-110. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.2.100
• Lott, B. (2012). The social psychology of class and classism. American Psychologist, 67(8), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029369
• Manstead, A. S. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267-291. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12251
• Murdock, N.Y.(2016). Psikolojik danışma ve psikoterapi kuramları (F. Akkoyun, Çev.Ed.). Nobel Yayınları.
• Murry, V. M., Heflinger, C. A., Suiter, S. V., & Brody, G. H. (2011). Examining perceptions about mental health care and help-seeking among rural African American families of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(9), 1118-1131. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-010-9627-1
• Ratts, M.J., & Pedersen, P.B.(2014). Counselor–advocate–scholar model: merging multiculturalism and social justice. In M.J. Ratts ve P.B. Pedersen (Eds.). Counseling for multiculturalism and social justice (pp. 51-59). American Counseling Association.
• Romero‐Canyas, R., Downey, G., Berenson, K., Ayduk, O., & Kang, N. J. (2010). Rejection sensitivity and the rejection–hostility link in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 119-148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x
• Russell, G. (1996). Internalized classism: The role of class in the development of self. Women & Therapy, 18(3-4), 59-71. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015v18n03_07
• Santrock, J.W.(2011). Yaşam boyu gelişim (G.Yüksel, Çev. Ed.). Nobel Yayınları.
• Smith, L. (2005). Psychotherapy, classism, and the poor: Conspicuous by their absence. American Psychologist, 60(7), 687-696. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.687
• Smith, L. (2008). Positioning classism within counseling psychology's social justice agenda. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(6), 895-924. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000007309861
• Smith, L., Foley, P. F., & Chaney, M. P. (2008). Addressing classism, ableism, and heterosexism in counselor education. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 303-309. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00513.x
• Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: how American universities' focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178-1197. DOI: 10.1037/a0027143
• Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, L. T. (2014). Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 611-634. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143
• Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. (2013). Rank is not enough: Why we need a sociocultural perspective to understand social class. Psychological Inquiry, 24(2), 126-130. DOI: 10.1080/1047840X.2013.795099
• Sue, D. W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R. J. (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70(4), 477-486. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1992.tb01642.x
• Thompson, M. N., & Subich, L. M. (2013). Development and exploration of the experiences with classism scale. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(1), 139-158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712450494
• Tuzgöl-Dost, M. (2020). Okul psikolojik danışmanlarına göre ilkokullardaki rehberlik ve psikolojik danışma hizmetlerinin durumu ve sorunları. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 19(76), 1673-1690. https://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.715029
• Tuzgöl-Dost, M., & Keklik, İ. (2012). Alanda çalışanların gözünden psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik alanının sorunları. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(23), 389-407. https://acikerisim.mehmetakif.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/11672/206?show=full
• Walpole, M. (2003). Socioeconomic status and college: How SES affects college experiences and outcomes. The Review of Higher Education, 27(1), 45-73. doi: 10.1353/rhe.2003.0044
• Watson, D. M. (2019). Counselor knows best: A grounded theory approach to understanding how working class, rural women experience the mental health counseling process. Journal of Rural Mental Health, 43(4), 150-163. https://doi.org/10.1037/rmh0000120
• Wentworth, P. A., & Peterson, B. E. (2001). Crossing the line: Case studies of identity development in first-generation college women. Journal of Adult Development, 8(1), 9-21.  https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026493620218