THE CASE OF THE WESTERN BALKAN ROMA: A LITMUS TEST FOR NORMATIVE POWER EUROPE?

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 35 Sayı: 1, 41 - 65, 31.03.2017

Murat Önsoy , Zeynep Arkan Tuncel

https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.303304

Cited By: 2

Öz

Viewed
increasingly as a ‘normative’ power, the European Union has come to dictate
what is regarded as ‘normal’ or ethically superior behaviour and standards not
only in its domestic realm, but also in its neighbourhood and beyond. This
ideational dimension of the European Union’s foreign policy is most apparent in
enlargement policy, its most successful foreign policy tool to date. This
article argues that the European Union’s ‘normative power’ is being tested in
its enlargement policy towards the Western Balkans and analyses the extent of
this challenge through the Union’s enlargement conditionality concerning the
Roma, the most discriminated and marginalised group in the Western Balkans. By
specifically focusing on the protection and promotion of the rights of the Roma
in the Western Balkan countries, the article contends that despite decades of
efforts that have dramatically improved the legal infrastructures of the
Western Balkan states and harmonised them with the EU legislation, the overall
picture is still bleak and the Roma populations in the Western Balkans continue
to face discrimination in almost all spheres of life.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Western Balkans, European Union, Normative Power, conditionality, enlargement, Roma

BATI BALKAN ROMANLARI: NORMATİF GÜÇ AVRUPA'NIN TURNUSOL TESTİ?

Öz

Gün
geçtikçe daha ‘normatif’ bir güç olarak görülen Avrupa Birliği, sadece kendi
sınırları içinde değil, aynı zamanda kendisine komşu bölgeler ve dünyada da
‘normal’ ya da etik olarak üstün görülen davranış ve standartlar konusunda
belirleyici konumdadır. Avrupa Birliği dış politikasının bu düşünsel boyutu, en
açık haliyle Birlik’in en başarılı dış politika aracı olan genişleme
politikasında görülmektedir. Bu makale Avrupa Birliği’nin ‘normatif gücü’nün,
Batı Balkanlar’a yönelik genişleme politikası ve özellikle de bölgede en fazla
ayrımcılığa uğrayan ve marjinalize edilmiş grup olan Romanlara yönelik
genişleme şartlılığı ile sınandığı iddia etmektedir. Makale Batı Balkanlar’da
yaşayan Romanların haklarının korunması ve geliştirilmesi konusuna odaklanarak,
bölge ülkelerinin yasal altyapılarını Avrupa Birliği mevzuatı ile
uyumlulaştıran ve iyileştiren sürece rağmen bölgede yaşayan Romanlara yönelik
ayrımcılığın her alanda devam ettiğini savunmaktadır. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Batı Balkanlar, Avrupa Birliği, normatif güç, şartlılık, genişleme, Romanlar

Kaynakça

• Aggestam, L. (2008), “Introduction: Ethical Power Europe?”, International Affairs, 84(1), 1-11. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00685.x.
• Bretherton, C., J. Vogler, (2006), The European Union as a Global Actor. Abingdon: Routledge.
• CEU (Council of the European Union) (2003), “European Security Strategy: A Secure Europe in a Better World”, Brussels, December, 12.
• CEU (Council of the European Union) (2006), “Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)”, Official Journal of the European Union, (L 210), July 31, 82-93.
• CEU (Council of the European Union) (2008), “Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy: Providing Security in a Changing World”, Brussels, December 11, S407/08. https://www.satcen.europa.eu/pdf_key/report%20on%20the%20implementation%20of%20the%20ess.pdf, E.T.: 15.06.2015.
• CEU (Council of the European Union) (2011), “An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 - Council Conclusions” Brussels. May 24, 10658/11. http://register.consilium.europa.eu/doc/srv?l=EN&f=ST%2010658%202011%20INIT, E.T.: 11.09.2015.
• CEU (Council of the European Union) (2015), “Council Conclusions on inclusion of the Roma”, Brussels, December, 8.
• http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/gena/104561.pdf, E.T.: 10.09.2015.
• Chandler, D. (2007), “EU Statebuilding: Securing the Liberal Peace through EU Enlargement”, Global Society 21(4), 593-607, DOI: 10.1080/13600820701562850.
• Chandler, D. (2010), The EU and Southeastern Europe: the rise of post-liberal governance”, Third World Quarterly, 31(1), 69-85, DOI: 1080/01436590903557330.
• Civil Rights Defenders (2014), “Photo Competition about the life of Roma in the Western Balkans”, Civil Rights Defenders, April 23.
• Coombes, D. (1998), “Leading by Virtuous Example: European Policy for Overseas Development” in B. McSweeney (ed.), Moral Issues in International Affairs: Problems of European Integration, 221–245, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
• Cooper, R. (2003), The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty-first Century, London: Atlantic Books.
• Council of Europe (2006), “Education of Roma children in Europe”, Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. December.
• De Laat, J. (2010), “Economic Costs of Roma Exclusion”, The World Bank, Europe and Central Asia Human Development Department, April.
• Diez, T. (2005), “Constructing the Self and Changing Others: Reconsidering ‘Normative Power Europe’”, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 33(3), 613-636. DOI:10.1177/03058298050330031701.
• Diez, T. (2013), “Normative Power as Hegemony”, Cooperation and Conflict, 48(2), 194-210. DOI: 10.1177/0010836713485387.
• Diez, T., I. Manners (2007), “Reflecting on ‘Normative Power’ Europe”, in Felix Berenskoetter and Mayne .J. (ed.), Power in World Politics, 173-188, New York: Routledge.
• Duchêne, F. (1972), “Europe’s Role in World Peace”, in Richard J. Mayne (ed.), Europe Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead, 32-47, London: Fontana.
• EASO (European Asylum Support Office) (2013), “Asylum Applicants from the Western Balkans: Comparative Analysis of Trends, Push–Pull Factors and Responses”. https://easo.europa.eu/wp-content/uploads/WB-report-final-version.pdf, E.T.:1.09.2015.
• EC (European Commission) (1997), “2003rd Council Meeting: General Affairs”, Press Release. Luxembourg, April 29-30. http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_PRES-97-129_en.pdf, E.T.: 15.09.2015.
• EC (European Commission) (2001), “CARDS Assistance Programme to the Western Balkans: Regional Strategy Paper: 2002-2006”.
• EC (European Commission) (2009), “Commission Decision of 2009 on a Multi-annual Indicative Planning Document (MIPD) 2009-2011 for Kosovo (under UNSCR 1244/99)”. http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/mipd_kosovo_2009_2011_en.pdf, E.T.:14.09.2015.
• EC (European Commission) (2010), “Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2010-2011”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, Brussels. November 9, COM(2010) 660.
• EC (European Commission) (2011a), “Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2012-2013,” Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, Brussels, November 9.
• https://s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/euobs-media/4cf131c09151a12142a60ba4fdf2fdc7.pdf, E.T.: 22.04.2015.
• EC (European Commission) (2011b), “An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels, April 5, COM(2011) 173 final. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/discrimination/docs/com_2011_173_en.pdf,
• EC (European Commission) (2014a), “EU Enlargement in 2014 and Beyond: Progress and Challenges”, Press Release, Brussels, October 8,
• EC (European Commission) (2014b), “Report on Discrimination of Roma Children in Education”. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/files/roma_childdiscrimination_en.pdf,
• EC (European Commission) (2015), “Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA II): 2014-2020: Multi-Country: Roma Decade 2020, Phase 1 (2015-2018)”, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2014_2019/documents/droi/dv/52_instrumentpreaccess_/52_instrumentpreaccess_en.pdf, E.T.: 15.11.2015.
• EC (European Commission) (2016a), “2016 Communication on EU Enlargement Policy. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_strategy_paper_en.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• EC (European Commission) (2016b), “Bosnia and Herzegovina 2016 Report”, SWD (2016) 365 final.
• https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents /2016 /20161109_report_bosnia_and_herzegovina.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• EC (European Commission) (2016c), “The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 2016 Report”, SWD (2016) 362 final. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_the_former_yugoslav_republic_of_macedonia.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• EC (European Commission) (2016d), “Montenegro 2016 Report”, SWD (2016) 360 final. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_montenegro.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• EC (European Commission) (2016e), “Serbia 2016 Report”, SWD (2016) 361 final. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_serbia.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• EC (European Commission), (2016f), “Kosovo* 2016 Report”, SWD (2016) 363 final. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_report_kosovo.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2016.
• European Council (2007), “Presidency Conclusions”, Brussels. December 14. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/97669.pdf, E.T.: 13.06.2015.
• Elbasani, A. (2008), “The Stabilisation and Association Process in the Balkans: Overloaded Agenda and Weak Incentives?”, EUI Working Paper SPS, no. 3. European University Institute, Department of Political and Social Science. http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/8447/SPS_2008_03.PDF?sequence=1, E.T.: 13.05.2015.
• EP (European Parliament), Council and Commission, (2006), “The European Consensus on Development”, Official Journal of the European Union C46, 1-19, February 24. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:42006X0224(01)&from=EN, E.T.: 13.11.2015.
• EP (European Parliament) (2008), “European Strategy on the Roma”, Resolution. January 31. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2008-0035+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN, E.T.: 13.11.2015.
• ERIO (European Roma Information Office) (2012), “Roma in the Western Balkans”, European Roma Information Office Newsletter Sep., Oct., and Dec. (4).
• http://cloud2.snappages.com/ecc3fa83da15cf423fe3aaa342f545fa355b24f3/NL4-October-December%202012%20ERIO.pdf, E.T.: 15.07.2015.
• Ferrari, H., S.L.A. Khan (2010), “EU Financial Assistance to the Western Balkans: a minority-focused Review of CARDS and IPA”, Report, London: Minority Rights Group International. http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/ download -914-Dowload-the-full-report.pdf, E.T.: 11.07.2015.
• Forsberg, T. (2011), “Normative Power Europe, Once Again: A Conceptual Analysis of an Ideal Type”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 49(6), 1183-1204. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-5965.2011.02194.x.
• Giegerich, B., W. Wallace (2010), “Foreign and Security Policy. Civilian Power Europe and American Leadership”, in H. Wallace, M.A. Pollack and A.R. Young (eds.) Policy-Making in the European Union, 431-456, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Hill, C. (1993), “The Capability-Expectations Gap, or Conceptualizing Europe’s International Role”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31(3), 305-328. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-5965.1993.tb00466.x.
• Hill, C. (1998), “Closing the Capabilities-Expectations Gap?” in J. Peterson, H. Sjursen (eds.) A Common Foreign Policy For Europe?, Competing Visions of the CFSP, 18-38, Abingdon: Routledge.
• Human Rights Watch. (2014), World Report 2014: Events of 2013, New York: Seven Stories Press, https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/wr2014_web_0.pdf, E.T.: 23.05.2015.
• Idrizi, B. (2011), “The EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies – An Opportunity to Revamp its Efforts in the Western Balkans and Pave the Way Forward”, European Magazine: Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians October, 10-12. http://kfos.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/magazine-05-ENG.pdf, E.T.: 10.07.2016.
• Ivanov, A. (2006), “At Risk: Roma and the displaced in South-East Europe”, UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the CIS, June 2006.
• https://issuu.com/undp_in_europe_cis/docs/vuln_rep_all, E.T.: 12.07.2015.
• Kagan, R. (2004), Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order, London: Atlantic Books.
• Kinnvall, C. (1995), Cultural Diffusion and Political Learning, The Democratization of China. Lund: Lund University Press.
• Kling, M. (2011), “Housing situation in Numbers: Roma in Central and Southeast Europe: UNDP/WB/EC Regional Roma survey 2011”.
• Kocze, A., A. Kullmann, A. Scharle, O. Szendrey, N. Teller, V. Zenta (2014), “Programming the Structural Funds for Roma Inclusion in 2014-20”, Budapest: Open Society Foundations. https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/programming-structural-funds-roma-inclusion-20140422.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2015.
• Krunić-Zita, L. (English: Alisa Jogunčić) (2010), “Evaluation of the National Action Plan for Resolving Roma Issues in Areas of Employment, Housing and Health Care (short version)”, In Evaluacija akcionih planova BiH za rješavanje problema Roma u oblastima, 51-82, Tuzla: Harfo-graf.
• http://www.bospo.ba/publikacije/Evaluacija_Romi.pdf.
• Kushen, R. ed. (2015), Roma Inclusion Index 2015. Budapest: Decade of Roma Inclusion Secretariat Foundation. http://www.romadecade.org/cms/upload/file/9810_file1_roma-inclusion-index-2015-s.pdf, E.T.: 13.07.2015.
• Laïdi, Z. (2011), “European Preferences and their Reception”, in Z. Laïdi (ed.) EU Foreign Policy in a Globalized World, 1-20, Abingdon: Routledge.
• Manners, I. (2002), “Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?”, Journal of Common Market Studies 40(2), 235-258. DOI: 10.1111/1468-5965.00353.
• Manners, I. (2004), “Normative Power Europe Reconsidered”, Paper presented at the CIDEL Workshop, Oslo, October 22-23.
• http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.465.3377&rep=rep1&type=pdf, E.T.: 14.07.2015.
• Manners, I. (2010), “The Normative Power of the European Union in a Globalised World”, in Zaki Laïdi (ed.) EU Foreign Policy in a Globalized World, 23-38, Abingdon: Routledge.
• Manners, I. (2011), “The European Union’s Normative Power: Critical Perspectives and Perspectives on the Critical”, in R. G. Whitman(ed.) Normative Power Europe: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, 226-247, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Manners, I. (2013), “Assessing the Decennial, Reassessing the global: Understanding European Union Normative Power in Global Politics”, Cooperation and Conflict, 48(2), 304-329. DOI: 10.1177/0010836713485389.
• Manners, I. (2015), “Sociology of Knowledge and Production of Normative Power in the European Union’s External Actions”, Journal of European Integration, 37(2), 299-318. DOI: 10.1080/07036337.2014.990141.
• McGarry, A. (2012), “The Dilemma of the European Union’s Roma Policy”, Critical Social Policy, 32(1), 126-136. DOI:10.1177/0261018311425201.
• Moravcsik, A. (2002), “The Quiet Superpower”, Newsweek, 17 June,
• https://www.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/quiet.pdf, E.T.: 13.09.2015.
• Murati, A. (2015), “Western Balkans Countries road to EU with Roma Community on Board”, European Western Balkans, February 19.
• http://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2015/02/19/western-balkans-countries-road-to-eu-with-roma-community-on-board/.
• New European Democracies Project (2010), “Assessing Human Security in the Western Balkans”, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), CSIS-EKEM Policy Report 4, November 5.
• Nicolaïdis, K. (2004), “The Power of the Superpowerless”, in T. Lindberg (ed.) Beyond Paradise and Power: Europe, America, and the Future of a Troubled Partnership, 93-120, Abingdon: Routledge.
• ODIHR (Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights) (2014), Best Practices for Roma Integration: Regional Report on Housing Legalization, Settlement Upgrading and Social Housing for Roma in the Western Balkans, Tirana: Pegi. http://www.osce.org/odihr/115737?download=true, E.T.: 19.05.2015.
• OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe) High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) (2000), “Report on the situation of Roma and Sinti in the OSCE Area”, The Hague. March 10. http://www.osce.org/hcnm/42063?download=true,
• UNICEF (2007), Breaking the cycle of exclusion: Roma children in South East Europe, Belgrade: Publikum.
• UNICEF (2009), Towards Roma Inclusion: A Review of Roma Education Initiatives in Central and South-Eastern Europe, Geneva: UNICEF Regional Office for Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• UNICEF (2011), The Right of Roma Children to Education. Geneva: UNICEF Regional Office for Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• Vermeersch, P. (2010), “Between Europeanisation and Discrimination: the Roma as a Special Focus of EU Policy, Conference Proceedings”, in Romani Mobilities in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Conference Papers, 226-236, Oxford: University of Oxford: Refugee Studies Centre, January 14-15.
• Vurmo, G. (2008), “Relations of Albania with the EU” in B. Szent-Ivanyi. Paper prepared in the framework of the Project “Integration Perspectives and Synergic Effects of European Transformation in the Countries Targeted by EU Enlargement and Neighbourhood Policies”.
• Whitman, R.G. (2011), “Norms, Power and Europe: A New Agenda for Study of the EU and International Relations”, in R.G. Whitman (ed.) Normative Power Europe: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, 1-22, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Whitman, R.G., S. Wolff, eds. (2012), The European Union as a Global Conflict Manager, New York: Routledge.
• World Bank. (2010), “Roma Inclusion: An Economic Opportunity for Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania and Serbia”, Washington, DC: World Bank.
• Zink, R. (2007), “Delivering on Promises to the Western Balkans: The European Agency for Reconstruction”, Newsletter, July.
• Sjursen, H. (2006), “The EU as a ‘Normative’ Power: How can this be?”, Journal of European Public Policy, 13 (2), 235-251. DOI:10.1080/13501760500451667.
• Smith, K.E. (2011), “Enlargement, the Neighbourhood and European Order”, In International Relations and the European Union, The new European Union Series, edited by C. Hill , M. Smith, 299-323, New York: Oxford University Press.
• Tatham, A.F. (2009), “Enlargement of the European Union”, Alphen van den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.
• Tocci, N. (ed.). (2008), “Who is a Normative Foreign Policy Actor? The European Union and its Global Partners”, Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies.
• UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), World Bank and EC (European Commission). (2011), Regional Roma Survey 2011.