Savunma Harcamaları ve Kurumsal Kalitenin Gelir Eşitsizliğine Etkisi: Türkiye’den Yeni Kanıtlar

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 26, 234 - 256, 28.02.2025

Burhan Durgun

https://doi.org/10.25204/iktisad.1615428

Öz

Eşitsizliğe etki eden faktörlerden biri olduğu ileri sürülen savunma harcamaları, ilgili literatürde kısıtlı bir alan kaplamaktadır. Türkiye’nin bulunduğu coğrafyadan kaynaklı olarak karşı karşıya kaldığı güvenlik risklerini azaltmak için savunma harcaması yapmak zorunda olması ve ülke içinde artan gelir eşitsizliği nedeniyle savunma harcamaları ve eşitsizlik bağının anlaşılması önem arz etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, 1988-2023 döneminde Türkiye’de savunma harcamaları, sefalet endeksi, büyüme ve kurumsal kalitenin gelir eşitsizliğine etkisi araştırılmıştır. RALS-ADL eşbütünleşme yönteminin kullanıldığı çalışmada uzun dönem ilişkisi doğrulanmıştır. Uzun dönem esneklikleri, büyüme ile eşitsizlik arasında düz U şekilli bir ilişkinin olduğunu göstermiştir. Ayrıca sefalet endeksi ve savunma harcamalarının eşitsizliği arttırdığı ve kurumsal kalitenin etkisinin anlamsız olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Düz U şekilli ilişkinin varlığı büyümenin uzun vadede eşitsizlik yaratacağını ifade etmektedir. Buna ek olarak eşitsizliğin artan savunma harcamaları ve yüksek enflasyonist süreçle daha da derinleşebileceği öngörülmektedir. Kurumsal kalite düzeyinin eşitleyici etkiden uzak olması da yine Türkiye açısından olumsuz bir tablo ortaya koymaktadır. Düşük gelirli kesime yönelik sosyal koruma harcamalarının arttırılmasının yanında, savunma harcamalarında etkinliğin sağlanması ve makroekonomik politikaların piyasalar üzerinde enflasyonist baskı yaratmayacak şekilde tasarlanması gerekmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Savunma harcamaları, gelir eşitsizliği, sefalet endeksi, kurumsal kalite

The Effect of Defense Spending and Institutional Quality on Income Inequality: Fresh Evidence from Türkiye

Öz

Defense spending, which is purported to be a contributing factor to inequality, has received scant attention in the extant literature. Given Türkye's imperative to allocate resources to defense in order to address security concerns arising from its geographical context, and concurrently, the necessity to curtail income inequality within the nation, a comprehensive understanding of the defense spending and inequality nexus is imperative. This study investigates the effects of defence spending, misery index, growth and institutional quality on income inequality in Türkiye for the period 1988-2023. Using the RALS-ADL cointegration method, the long-run relationship was confirmed. The long-run elasticities indicate a U-shaped relationship between growth and inequality. In addition, misery index and defense spending are found to increase inequality and the effect of institutional quality is insignificant. The existence of a U-shaped relationship implies that growth will increase inequality in the long run. This phenomenon is further exacerbated by an increase in defense spending and a high inflation rate. The fact that the level of institutional quality is far from having an equalizing effect also presents a negative scenario for Türkiye. To mitigate these challenges, it is imperative to enhance social protection expenditures for low-income groups, ensure the efficiency of defense spending, and devise macroeconomic policies that do not engender inflationary pressures in markets.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Defense spending, income inequality, misery index, institutional quality

Kaynakça

• Abell, J. D. (1994). Military spending and income inequality. Journal of Peace Research, 31(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343394031001004
• Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S. ve Robinson, J. A. (2001). The colonial origins of comparative development: an empirical investigation. American Economic Review, 91(5), 1367-1401. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.5.1369
• Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S. ve Robinson, J. A. (2005). Institutions as the fundamental cause of long-run growth, In: Handbook of Economic Growth, Chapter 6. Edited by Philippe Aghion and Steven Durlauf. North Holland: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01006-3
• Acheampong, A. O., Adebayo, T. S., Dzator, J. ve Koomson, I. (2023). Income inequality and economic growth in BRICS: insights from non parametric techniques. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 21, 619-640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-023-09567-9
• Adeleye, B. N. (2024). Income inequality, human capital and institutional quality in sub-Saharan Africa. Social Indicators Research, 171(1), 133-157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-023-03244-0
• Afonso, O. ve Sequeira, T. (2023). The effect of inflation on wage inequality: a north–south monetary model of endogenous growth with international trade. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 55(1), 215-249. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmcb.12914
• Afriyie, J. K., Twumasi-Ankrah, S., Gyamfi, K. B., Arthur, D. ve Pels, W. A. (2020). Evaluating the performance of unit root tests in single time series processes. Mathematics and Statistics, 8(6), 656-664. https://doi.org/10.13189/ms.2020.080605
• Ahluwalia, M. S. (1976). Inequality, poverty and development. Journal of Development Economics, 3(4), 307-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(76)90027-4
• Ak, M. Z. ve Altıntaş, N. (2016). Kuznets’in ters U eğrisi bağlamında Türkiye’de gelir eşitsizliği ve ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi: 1986-2012. Maliye Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(3), 93-102. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/finance/issue/61462/917902
• Aksoğan, G. ve Elveren, A. Y. (2012). Türkiye’de savunma, sağlık ve eğitim harcamaları ve gelir eşitsizliği (1970-2008): Ekonometrik bir inceleme. Sosyoekonomi, 17(17), 263-280. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sosyoekonomi/issue/21077/226930
• Alesina, A. ve Rodrik, D. (1994). Distributive politics and economic growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109(2), 465-490. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470
• Ali, H. E. (2007). Military expenditures and inequality: empirical evidence from global data. Defence and Peace Economics, 18(6), 519-535. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242690701331501
• Ali, H. E. (2012). military expenditures and inequality in the middle east and North Africa: a panel analysis. Defence and Peace Economics, 23(6), 575-589. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2012.663578
• Asamoah, L. A. (2021). Institutional quality and income inequality in developing countries: a dynamic panel threshold analysis. Progress in Development Studies, 21(2), 123-143. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993421101671 Avcı, M. ve Mukiyen Avcı, G. (2017). OECD ülkelerinde kurumsal kalite ve gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi. Sosyoekonomi, 25(31), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.288624
• Ayla, D. (2020). NEXT 11 ekonomilerinde hoşnutsuzluk endeksi ve gelir dağılımı incelemesi. L. Y. Eser ve S. Samut (Ed.) İktisat Seçme Yazılar 2020-II içinde (s. 139-156). Celepler Matbaası, Trabzon.
• Balcilar, M., Gupta, R., Ma, W., & Makena, P. (2021). Income inequality and economic growth: A re‐examination of theory and evidence. Review of Development Economics, 25(2), 737-757. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12754
• Banerjee, A., Dolado, J. J. ve Mestre, R. (1998). Error-correction mechanism tests for cointegration in a single-equation framework. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 19(3), 267–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9892.00091
• Barro, R. J. (1999). Determinants of democracy. Journal of Political Economy, 107(6), S158-S183. https://doi.org/10.1086/250107
• Barro, R. J. (1996). Determinants of economic growth: A cross-country study. (NBER Working Paper No. 5698). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w5698/w5698.pdf
• Barro, R. J. (2000). Inequality and growth in a panel of countries. Journal of Economic Growth, 5(1), 5-32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009850119329
• Bayer, C. ve Hanck, C. (2008). Is double trouble? How to combine cointegration tests. Ruhr Economic Papers, (48). https://doi.org/10.26481/umamet.2008014
• Bayer, C. ve Hanck, C. (2012). Combining non-cointegration tests. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 34(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9892.2012.00814.x
• Beji, S. (2019). Financial openness and income inequality: Do institutions matter for Africa? Economics Bulletin, 39(1), 104-114. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3322670
• Benoit, E. (1978). Growth and defense in developing countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26(2), 271-280. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1153245
• Benos, N. ve Karagiannis, S. (2018). Inequality and growth in the united states: why physical and human capital matter. Economic Inquiry, 56(1), 572-619. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12475
• Beşkaya, A. (2013). Political economy of economic discomfort: a time series analysis of Turkey, 1980-2010. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 9(1), 1-14. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/esad/issue/6061/81506
• Biscione, A. ve Caruso, R. (2021). Military expenditures and income inequality evidence from a panel of transition countries (1990-2015). Defence And Peace Economics, 32(1), 46-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2019.1661218
• Bittencourt, M. (2009). Macroeconomic performance and inequality: Brazil, 1983-94. The Developing Economies, 47(1), 30-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1049.2009.00075.x
• Blancheton, B. ve Chhorn, D. (2021). Government intervention, institutional quality, and income inequality: evidence from Asia and the Pacific, 1988-2014. Asian Development Review, 38(1), 176-206. https://doi.org/10.1162/adev_a_00162
• Boel, P. (2018). The redistributive effects of inflation and the shape of money demand. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 90, 208-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jedc.2018.02.011
• Boswijk, H. P. (1994). Testing for an unstable root in conditional and unconditional error correction models. Journal of Econometrics, 63, 37-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(93)01560-9
• Braun, M., Parro, F. ve Valenzuela, P. (2019). Does finance alter the relation between inequality and growth?. Economic Inquiry, 57(1), 410-428. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12581
• Breunig, R. ve Majeed, O. (2020). Inequality, poverty, and growth. International Economics, 161(C) 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2019.11.005
• Brueckner, M. ve Lederman, D. (2018). Inequality and economic growth: The role of initial income. Journal of Economic Growth, 23(3), 341-366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-018-9156-4
• Castells-Quintana, D. ve Royuela, V. (2012). Unemployment and long-run economic growth: the role of income inequality and urbanisation. Investigaciones Regionales-Journal of Regional Research, (24), 153-173. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/289/28924660007.pdf
• Chen, M. Y. (2002). Testing stationarity against unit roots and structural changes. Applied Economics Letters, 9(7), 459-464. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850110091895
• Chong, A. ve Calderon, C. (2000). Causality and feedback between institutional measures and economic growth. Economics & Politics, 12(1), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0343.00069
• Chu, A. C., Cozzi, G., Fan, H., Furukawa, Y. ve Liao, C. H. (2019). Innovation and inequality in a monetary Schumpeterian model with heterogeneous households and firms. Review of Economic Dynamics, 34, 141-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2019.03.006
• Clarke, G. R., Xu, L. C. ve Zou, H. F. (2006). Finance and income inequality: what do the data tell us?. Southern Economic Journal, 72(3), 578-596. https://doi.org/10.2307/20111834
• Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Teorell, J., Altman, D., ... & Ziblatt, D. (2024). V-Dem Dataset v14. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://doi.org/10.23696/mcwt-fr58
• Çakmak, A. İ. ve Tosun, B. (2017). Ekonomik büyüme-gelir dağılımı ilişkisi: Kuznets hipotezinin seçilmiş ülkeler üzerine araştırılması. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 33, 33-44. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/kosbed/issue/43231/524877
• Çenberci, E. (2019). Defense expenditures and income inequality: evidence from chosen Euro Using Countries. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(6), 121-127. https://doi.org/10.18506/anemon.472974
• Deininger, K. ve Squire, L. (1998). New ways of looking at old issues: inequality and growth. Journal of Development Economics, 57(2), 259-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(98)00099-6
• Desbordes, R. ve Verardi, V. (2012). Refitting the Kuznets curve. Economics Letters, 116(2), 258-261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.03.010
• Dickey, D. A. ve Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Journal of American Statistical Association, 74(366), 427-431. https://doi.org/10.2307/2286348
• Dişbudak, C. ve Süslü, B. (2009). Kalkınma ve bireysel gelir dağılımı: Kuznets hipotezi Türkiye için geçerli mi?. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(18), 146-166. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/auiibfd/issue/32320/359154
• Doré, N. I. ve Teixeira, A. A. (2023). The role of human capital, structural change, and institutional quality on Brazil's economic growth over the last two hundred years (1822–2019). Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 66, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2023.04.003
• El Herradi, M., Haan, J. ve Leroy, A. (2022). Inflation and the income share of the rich: evidence for 14 OECD countries. Review of Income and Wealth, 69(1), 170-194. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12580
• Elhini, M. ve Hammam, R. (2021). An empirical examination of the impact of economic structural change on income inequality: dynamic heterogeneous panel approach. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 10(1), 136-152. https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2021.v10n1p136
• Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T. J. ve Stock, J. H. (1996). Efficient tests for an autoregressive unit root. Econometrica, 64(4), 813-836. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2171846
• Elveren, A. Y. (2012). Military spending and income inequality: evidence on cointegration and causality for Turkey, 1963–2007. Defence and Peace Economics, 23(3), 289-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2011.578414
• Engle, R. F. ve Granger, C. W. J (1987). Co-integration and error correction: representation, estimation, and testing. Econometrica, 55(2), 251-276. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913236
• Fawaz, F., Rahnama, M. ve Valcarcel, V. J. (2014). A refinement of the relationship between economic growth and income inequality. Applied Economics, 46(27), 3351-3361. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2014.929624
• Fisher, R. (1932). Statistical methods for research workers. London: Oliver and Boyd
• Forbes, K. J. (2000). A Reassessment of the relationship between inequality and growth. American Economic Review, 90(4), 869–887. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.869
• Gakuru, E. ve Yang, S. (2024). Misery index improvement: a review based on theoretical and empirical evidence. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02052-2
• Galbraith, J. K. (2012). Inequality and instability. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Galbraith, J. K. ve Kum, H. (2003). Inequality and economic growth: a global view based on measures of pay. CESifo Economic Studies, 49(4), 527-556. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/49.4.527
• Ghosh, S. (2022). Analysing the nexus between income inequality and military expenditure in top ten defence expenditure economies. Quality & Quantity, 56, 689-712. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-021-01140-8
• Gnangnon, S. K. (2020). Aid for trade flows and wage inequality in the manufacturing sector of recipient-countries. Journal of Economic Integration, 35(4), 643-683. https://doi.org/10.11130/jei.2020.35.4.643
• Govindaraju, V. C. ve Tang, C. F. (2013). The dynamic links between CO2 emissions, economic growth and coal consumption in China and India. Applied Energy, 104, 310-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.10.042
• Göcen, S. (2021). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi: Türkiye için bölgesel bazda bir inceleme. Ekonomi, Politika & Finans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(IERFM Özel Sayısı), 247-265. https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1020478
• Grabia, T. (2011). The Okun misery index in the European Union countries from 2000 to 2009. Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe, 14(4), 97-115. https://hdl.handle.net/10419/259091
• Gustafsson, B. ve Johansson, M. (1999). In search of smoking guns: what makes income inequality vary over time in different countries? American Sociological Review, 64(4), 585–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312249906400408
• Günlük-Senesen, G. (2002). Budgetary trade-offs of security expenditures in Turkey. Defence and Peace Economics, 13(5), 385–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242690213509
• Hall, R. E. ve Jones, C. (1999). Why do some countries produce so much more output per worker than others?, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(1), 83-116. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355399555954
• Hepsağ, A. (2022). Ekonometrik zaman serileri analizlerinde güncel yöntemler (WinRATS uygulamalı). İstanbul: Der Yayınları.
• Hirnissa, M. T., Habibullah, M. Z. ve Baharom, A. H. (2009). Defense spending and income inequality: evidence from selected Asian countries. Modern Applied Science, 3(5), 96–111. https://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v3n5p96
• Huang, H. C., Lin, Y. C. ve Yeh, C. C. (2012). An appropriate test of the Kuznets hypothesis. Applied Economics Letters, 19(1), 47-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2011.566172
• Huynh, C. M. (2021). Foreign direct investment and income inequality: does institutional quality matter? The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 30(8), 1231–1243. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2021.1942164
• Jantti, M. (1994). A more efficient estimate of the effects of macroeconomic activity on the distribution of income. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 76(2), 372-378. https://doi.org/10.2307/2109895
• Johansen S. (1988). Statistical analysis of cointegration vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 12(2-3), 231–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1889(88)90041-3
• Jones, E. L. (1987). The European miracle: environments, economies, and geopolitics in the history of Europe and Asia. Cambridge University Press.
• Kasap, A. (2023). Hanke sefalet endeksi ile demografik ve sosyal göstergeler arasındaki ilişkinin ampirik analizi: kırılgan beşli örneği. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18(1), 146-160. https://doi.org/10.48145/gopsbad.1291877
• Kentor, J., Jorgenson, A. K. ve Kick, E. (2012). The “new” military and income inequality: a cross national analysis. Social Science Research, 41(3), 514–526. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.12.005
• Kim, H. ve Rhee, D. E. (2022). The effects of asset prices on income inequality: redistribution policy does matter. Economic Modelling, 113, 105899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2022.105899
• Knack, S. ve Keefer, P. (1995). Institutions and economic performance: cross-country tests using alternative institutional measures. Economics and Politics, 7(3), 207-227. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0343.1995.tb00111.x
• Korrani, S. S. ve Zia, A. (2023). The effect of economic growth and misery index on income inequality in Iran (Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL)). International Journal of Nonlinear Analysis and Applications, 14(3), 343-351. https://doi.org/10.22075/ijnaa.2022.25988.3181
• Kunawotor, M. E., Bokpin, G. A. ve Barnor, C. (2020). Drivers of income inequality in Africa: does institutional quality matter?. African Development Review, 32(4), 718-729. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12473
• Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. The American Economic Review, 45(1), 1-28. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811581
• Kwiatkowski, D., Phillips, P. C., Schmidt, P. ve Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis of stationarity against the alternative of a unit root: how sure are we that economic time series have a unit root?. Journal of Econometrics, 54(1-3), 159-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(92)90104-Y
• Law, C. H. ve Soon, S. V. (2020). The impact of inflation on income inequality: the role of institutional quality. Applied Economics Letters, 27(21), 1735–1738. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2020.1717425
• Lee, H., Lee, J. ve Im, K. (2015). More powerful cointegration tests with non-normal errors. Studies in Nonlinear Dynamics & Econometrics, 19(4), 397-413. https://doi.org/10.1515/snde-2013-0060
• Lin, E. S. ve Ali, H. E. (2009). Military spending and inequality: panel Granger causality test. Journal of Peace Research, 46(5), 671–685. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343309339247
• Lin, E. S., Ali, H. E. ve Lu, Y. L. (2015). Does military spending crowd out social welfare expenditures? evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Defence and Peace Economics, 26(1), 33-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2013.848576
• Lin, F. ve Fu, D. (2016). Trade, institution quality and income inequality. World Development, 77, 129-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.08.017
• Majeed, M. T. (2016). Economic growth and income inequality nexus: an empirical analysis for Pakistan. Kashmir Economic Review, 25(1), 1–12. https://www.ker.org.pk/index.php/ker/article/view/162
• Mdingi, K. ve Ho, S. Y. (2021). Literature review on income inequality and economic growth. MethodsX, 8, 101402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2021.101402
• Meng, B., Lucyshyn, W. ve Li. X. (2015). Defense expenditure and income inequality: evidence on co-integration and causality for China. Defence and Peace Economics, 26(3), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2013.810026
• Michael, C. ve Stelios, R. (2020). The efect of military spending on income inequality: evidence from NATO countries. Empirical Economics, 58, 1305–1337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-018-1576-7
• Milanovic, B. (2018). Küresel eşitsizlik; küreselleşme çağı için yeni bir yaklaşım, (Çev. Meneviş Uzbay, Mustafa Pirili), Efil Yayınevi, İstanbul.
• Mocan, H. N. (1999). Structural unemployment, cyclical unemployment, and income inequality. Review of Economics and Statistics, 81(1), 122-134. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465399767923872
• Monnin, P. (2014). Inflation and income inequality in developed economies. (CEP Working Paper No. 1401). Council on Economic Policies. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2444710
• Moradi, F., Jafari, M. ve Fatahi, S. (2022). The impact of misery index and corruption control on income inequality (With the Quantile Approach). Applied Economics Studies Iran (AESI), 10(40), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.22084/aes.2021.23587.3246
• Nawaz, S., Iqbal, N. ve Khan, M. A. (2014). The impact of institutional quality on economic growth: panel evidence. The Pakistan Development Review, 53(1), 15-31. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24397923
• Nessen, R. (2008). Arthur Okun father of the misery index. Washington, DC: Opinion - The Brookings Institution.
• Niyimbanira, F. (2017). Analysis of the impact of economic growth on income inequality and poverty in South Africa: the case of Mpumalanga province. International Journal Economics Financial Issues, 7(4), 254–261. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijefi/issue/32006/353543
• North, D. C. (1981). Structure and change in economic history. Norton
• Oczki, J., Muszyńska, J. ve Wędrowska, E. (2017). Kuznets hypothesis of income inequality: empirical evidence from EU. https://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4909
• Ofluoğlu, N. Ö., Artan, S. ve Kalaycı, C. (2018). Kurumsal kalite, ekonomik özgürlükler ve gelir dağılımı ilişkisi: MINT ülkeleri örneği. Hak İş Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 7(17), 90-107. https://doi.org/10.31199/hakisderg.386514
• Olson, M. (1982). The rise and decline of nations: economic growth. stagflation, and social rigidities. Yale University Press.
• Ongo Nkoa, B. E. ve Song, J. S. (2022). Does institutional quality increase inequalities in Africa?. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 13(3), 1896-1927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00771-4
• Osode, O. E., Iheonu, C. O. ve Dauda, R. (2022). On the relationship between globalization and income inequality: does institution matter?. Journal of Public Affairs, 22(2), e2433. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2433
• Özer, M. O. (2019). Gelişmekte olan ülkelerde iktisadi hoşnutsuzluk endeksi ile cari açık arasındaki ilişki. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü İktisat Anabilim Dalı Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul.
• Panizza, U. (2002). Income, inequality and economic growth: evidence from American data. Journal of Economic Growth, 7, 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013414509803
• Papadopoulos, G. (2019). Income inequality, consumption, credit and credit risk in a data-driven agent-based model. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 104, 39-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jedc.2019.05.002
• Papanek, G. F. ve Kyn, O. (1986). The effect on income distribution of development, the growth rate and economic strategy. Journal of Development Economics, 23(1), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(86)90079-9
• Partridge, M. (1997). Is inequality harmful for growth? comment. The American Economic Review, 87(5), 1019–1032. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2951339
• Paukert, F. (1973). Income distribution at different levels of development: survey of evidence. International Labour Review, 108(3), 97-126.
• Perotti, R. (1996). Growth, income distribution and democracy: what the data say. Journal of Economic Growth, 1, 149–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138861
• Persson, T. ve Tabellini, G. (1994). Is inequality harmful for growth? theory and evidence. American Economic Review, 84(3), 600–621. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118070
• Phillips, P. C. ve Hansen, B. E. (1990). Statistical inference in instrumental variables regression with I(1) processes. Review of Economic Studies, 57(1), 99-125. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297545
• Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the 21st century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Pradhan, R. P., Bahmani, S. ve Abraham, R. (2021). Institutional quality, insurance markets, and economic growth: evidence from pooled mean group estimation. Applied Economics Letters, 30(4), 445–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2021.1991561
• Ram, R. (1991). Kuznets's inverted-U hypothesis: evidence from a highly developed country. Southern Economic Journal, 57(4), 1112-1123. https://doi.org/10.2307/1060338
• Rangel, L. A., Andrade, J. ve Divin, J. A. (2002). Economic growth and income inequality in brazil: analysing the comparable minimum areas. Working Paper, Brazilian Institute for Applied Economic Research and University of Brasilia, Brazil.
• Raza, S. A., Shahbaz, M. ve Paramati, S. R. (2017). Dynamics of military expenditure and income inequality in Pakistan. Social Indicators Research, 131, 1035-1055. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1284-7
• Redek, T. ve Sušjan, A. (2005). The impact of institutions on economic growth: the case of transition economies. Journal of Economic Issues, 39(4), 995-1027. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2005.11506864
• Rodrik, D. (2000). Institutions for high-quality growth: what they are and how to acquire them. Studies in Comparative International Development, 35, 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02699764
• Roser, M. ve Cuaresma, J. C. (2016). Why is income inequality increasing in the developed world? Review of Income and Wealth, 62(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12153
• Royuela, V., Veneri, P. ve Ramos, R. (2019). The short-run relationship between inequality and growth: evidence from OECD regions during the Great Recession. Regional Studuies, 53(4), 574-586. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2018.1476752
• Ruiz-Huerta, J., Martínez, R. ve Ayala, L. (1999). Earnings inequality, unemployment and income distribution in the OECD. (LIS Working Paper No. 214). Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), Luxembourg. http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/214.pdf
• Scholl, N. ve Klasen, S. (2019). Re-estimating the relationship between inequality and growth. Oxford Economic Papers, 71(4), 824–847. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpy059
• Seiglie, C. (1997). Deficits, defense and income redistribution. The Cato Journal, 17(1), 11-21. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1553355
• Shahbaz, M. (2010). Income inequality, economic growth and nonlinearity: a case of Pakistan. International Journal of Social Economics, 37(8), 613–636. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291011060652
• Shahbaz, M., Sherafatian-Jahromi, R., Malik, M. N., Shabbir, M. S. ve Jam, F. A. (2016). Linkages between defense spending and income inequality in Iran. Quality & Quantity, 50, 1317-1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-015-0207-z
• Sharif, A. ve Afshan, S. (2018). Does military spending impede income inequality? a comparative study of Pakistan and India. Global Business Review, 19(2), 257-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150917713523
• Sheng, Y. (2011). Unemployment and income inequality: A puzzling finding from the US in 1941-2010. Available at SSRN 2020744. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2020744
• Sherani, S. (2019). Institutional reforms in Pakistan: Missing piece of the development puzzle. In S. S. Aneel, U. T. Haroon, & I. Niazi (Ed.), 70 years of development: The way forward (s. 39-61). Islamabad, Pakistan: Sang-e-Meel Publications. https://tinyurl.com/22jfsyuu
• Siddiqui, D. A. ve Ahmed, Q. M. (2013). The effect of institutions on economic growth: a global analysis based on GMM dynamic panel estimation. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 24, 18-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2012.12.001
• Sintos, A. (2023). Does inflation worsen income inequality? a meta-analysis. Economic Systems, 47(4), 101146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2023.101146
• Solarin, S.A. (2017). Disaggregated military expenditure and the debt level in Nigeria. Quality & Quantity, 51, 1687–1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0360-z
• Solt, F. (2020). Measuring income inequality across countries and over time: the standardized world income inequality database. Social Science Quarterly 101(3), 1183-1199. SWIID Version 9.6, December 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12795
• Taş, S., Örnek, İ. ve Aksoğan, G. (2013). Türkiye’de savunma harcamaları, büyüme ve gelir eşitsizliği, 1970-2008: ekonometrik bir inceleme. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(3), 659-682. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/jss/issue/24232/256867
• Tebaldi, E. ve Elmslie, B. (2008). Institutions, innovation and economic growth. (MPRA Paper No. 9683). Munich Personal RePEc Archive. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9683/
• Topuz, S. G. ve Dağdemir, Ö. (2016). Ekonomik büyüme ve gelir eşitsizliği ilişkisi: Kuznets ters-U hipotezi’nin geçerliliği. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 11(13), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.17153/oguiibf.272308
• Töngür, Ü. ve Elveren, A. Y. (2013). Military expenditures, income inequality, welfare and political regimes: a dynamic panel data analysis. Defence and Peace Economics, 26(1), 49-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2013.848577
• Ucal M., Karabulut G. ve Bilgin M. H. (2009). Military expenditures and inequality: empirical evidence from Israel. (MPRA Paper No. 48643). Munich Personal RePEc Archive. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/48643
• Ulubasoglu, M. A. ve Doucouliagos, C. (2004). Institutions and economic growth: a systems approach. http://repec.org/esAUSM04/up.29323.1076501864.pdf
• UN, (2024, 12 Kasım). Reduce inequality within and among countries. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal10
• Vadlamannati, K. C. (2008). Exploring the relationship between military spending & income inequality in South Asia. (William Davidson Institute Working Paper No. 918). The University of Michigan. https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/64381
• Wan, G., Lu, M. ve Chen, Z. (2006). The inequality–growth nexus in the short and long run: empirical evidence from China. Journal of Comparative Economic, 34(4), 654-667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2006.08.004
• Wang, M. L., Ntim, V. S., Yang, J., Zheng, Q. ve Geng, L. (2021). Effect of institutional quality and foreign direct investment on economic growth and environmental quality: evidence from African countries. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 35(1), 4065-409. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2021.2010112
• Wolde-Rufael, Y. (2016a). Military expenditure and income distribution in South Korea. Defence and Peace Economics, 27(4), 571–581. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2014.960247
• Wolde-Rufael, Y. (2016b). Defence spending and income inequality in Taiwan. Defence and Peace Economics, 27(6), 871–884. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2014.886436
• Yang, Y. ve Greaney, T. M. (2017). Economic growth and income inequality in the Asia-Pacific region: a comparative study of China, Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Journal of Asian Economics, 48, 6-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2016.10.008
• Zhuang, J., de Dios, E. ve Martin, A. L. (2010). Governance and institutional quality and the links with economic growth and income inequality: with special reference to developing Asia. (Asian Development Bank Economics Working Paper No. 193). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1619116