THE SUBLIME PORTE AND THE STANDARD OF CIVILIZATION: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN THE EYES OF THE EUROPEANS ON THE BASIS OF 1856 PARIS TREATY

Yıl 2019, , 418 - 437, 31.12.2019

Habip Ünyılmaz

https://doi.org/10.21492/inuhfd.571998

Öz

The admission of the Ottoman Empire to benefit European
public law was arranged in the 1856 Paris Treaty which is also the certificate
of Ottoman inclusion in the Concert of Europe. But there is an old debate about
the nature and results of the admission, that students of the history of
international law are familiar with. In this article to deliver the
intellectual background of the concepts and institutions of the debate, the
doctrine and practice of the century are explained. The debate which is shaped
by both ideological motivations of doctrine and high politics affected law
practice, presented by examining differentiating views on the subject. In
evaluation, firstly attention drawn to the limited and inconsistent character
of European public law. Than although as an important phase in which the
Empire’s endeavors to be a part of the European family of nations was
confirmed, the probability that Paris Treaty’s had an only partial effect on the
subject is submitted. It will be seen that especially at the second half of the
century, the experience of the Ottomans which is thought to have gained
membership in the family of nations by fulfilling the requirements of the
standard of civilization is an informative case study to learn about the
complex and ambiguous idea of international law of the era.

 

Anahtar Kelimeler

History of international law, Ottoman Empire, standard of civilisation, family of nations, 1856 Paris Treaty

AVRUPA UYGARLIK EŞİĞİNDE BÂBIÂLİ : 1856 PARİS ANDLAŞMASI TEMELİNDE ULUSLARARASI HUKUK VE OSMANLI İMPARATORLUĞU İLİŞKİSİNE AVRUPALILARIN GÖZÜYLE BİR BAKIŞ

Öz

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Avrupa
Ahengi’ne kabulünün vesikası olan 1856 Paris Andlaşması’nda, İmparatorluğun
aynı zamanda Avrupa kamu hukukuna da dâhil edildiği düzenlenmiştir. Buna rağmen
söz konusu düzenlemenin mahiyeti ve sonuçlarına dair uluslararası hukuk
tarihiyle ilgilenenlerin aşina olduğu eski bir tartışma devam edegelmiştir. Bu
çalışmada yüzyılın uluslararası hukuk öğretisi ve uygulaması izah edilerek öncelikle
ilgili tartışmada kullanılan kavramlar ve kurumlar düşünsel bütünü içinde
anlamlandırılmaya çalışılmıştır. Hem hukuk öğretisinin ideolojik güdülenmesinin
hem de yüksek siyasetin tesirindeki hukuk uygulamasının şekillendirdiği bu
tartışmaya dair farklı görüşler açıklanarak sunulmuştur. Bu görüşler üzerinden
yapılan değerlendirmede ilkin Avrupa kamu hukukunun sınırlı ve değişken
karakterine dikkat çekilmiştir. Ardından İmparatorluğun Avrupalı uluslar
ailesinin bir parçası olabilmek için giriştiği faaliyetlerin teyit edildiği
önemli bir aşama olmasına rağmen Paris Andlaşması’nın ancak kısmen bu konuda
etki doğurduğu ihtimali ortaya konmuştur. Böylece uygarlık eşiğini geçerek
uluslar ailesinin üyesi olduğu düşünülen Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bilhassa yüzyılın
ikinci yarısındaki tecrübelerinin 19. yüzyılın karmaşık ve kesinlikten uzak
uluslararası hukuk düşüncesini açıklamak için öğretici bir vakıa çalışması
olduğu görülecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Uluslararası hukukun tarihi, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, uygarlık eşiği, uluslar ailesi, 1856 Paris Andlaşması

Kaynakça

• AKYILMAZ Gül, Siyasi Tarih, Ankara, Seçkin, 2015.
• ALEXANDROWICZ C. H., “Empirical and Doctrinal Positivism in International Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, C. 47, S. 1 (1976), s. 286-89.
• ANDIÇ Fuat/Süphan ANDIÇ, Kırım Savaşı, Âli Paşa ve Paris Antlaşması, İstanbul: Eren Yayıncılık, 2002.
• ANGHIE Antony, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• ARAL Berdal, “The Ottoman ‘School’ of International Law as Featured in Textbooks”, Journal of the History of International Law, C. 18, S. 1 (2016), s. 70-97.
• ARMAOĞLU Fahir, 19. Yüzyıl Siyasî Tairihi (1789-1914), Ankara, TTK Yayınları, 1997.
• AUSTIN John, Austin: The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, ed. Wilfrid E. Rumble, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
• BAKTIAYA Adil, “19. Yüzyıl Suriyesinde Hıristiyan-Müslüman İlişkilerinde Değişim 1860 Şam Olayları”, İÜİF Mecmuası, C. 58, S. 2 (2011), s. 23-44.
• BOWDEN Brett, The Empire of Civilization, Şikago, University of Chicago Press, 2009.
• BROWNLIE Ian, “The Expansion of International Society: The Consequences for the Law of Nations”, The Expansion of International Society, ed. Hedley Bull, Adam Watson, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984, s. 357-69.
• BULL Hedley, “The Emergence of a Universal International Society”, The Expansion of International Society, ed. Hedley Bull, Adam Watson, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984, s. 117-26.
• CHESTERMAN Simon, Just War or Just Peace?: Humanitarian Intervention and International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002.
• ERIM Nihat, Devletlerarası Hukuku ve Siyasi Tarih Metinleri, Ankara, AÜHF Yayınları, 1953.
• ERKİNER, H. Hakan: “Uluslararası Hukuk Düşüncesinde Klâsı̇k Öğretinin Kuruluşu: Hugo Grotius ve Postgrotien Yazarlar Samuel Von Pufendorf, Richard Zouche, Cornelius Van Bynkershoek ve Samuel Rachel'e İlişkin İnceleme ve Değerlendirme”, Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18/3 (2012), s. 3-140.
• FIORE Pasquale, International Law Codified and Its Legal Sanction, çev. E.D. Borchard, 5th Edition., New York, Baker, 1918.
• GONG G.W., The Standard of “Civilization” in International Society, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1984.
• GÖKBERK Macit, Felsefe Tarihi, 24. b., İstanbul, Remzi Kitabevi, 2012.
• GÖZLER Kemal, Türk Anayasa Hukuku, Bursa, Ekin Kitabevi, 2000.
• GREWE Wilhelm G., The Epochs of International Law, Berlin, Boston, De Gruyter, 2000.
• HALL Stephen, “The Persistent Spectre: Natural Law, International Order and the Limits of Legal Positivism”, European Journal of International Law, 12/1 (2001).
• HALL William Edward, A Treatise on International Law, Clarendon Press, 1884.
• HERTSLET Edward, The Map of Europe by Treaty, Londra, Butterworths, 1875.
• HUREWITZ J. C., “Ottoman Diplomacy and the European State System”, Middle East Journal, C. 15, S. 2 (1961), s. 141-52.
• İPŞİRLİ Mehmet, “Bâbıâli”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 1991, C. 4, s. 378-86.
• KARAL Enver Ziya, Osmanlı Tarihi, V. Cilt, Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1947.
• KARAL Enver Ziya, Osmanlı Tarihi, VI. Cilt, Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1954.
• KARAL Enver Ziya, Osmanlı Tarihi, IX. Cilt, Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1999.
• KENNEDY David, “International Law and the Nineteenth Century”, Nordic Journal of International Law, C. 65, S. 3 (1996), s. 385-420.
• KOSKENNIEMI Martti, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• KOSKENNIEMI Martti, “The Legacy of the Nineteenth Century”, Routledge Handbook of International Law, ed. David Armstrong, Routledge, 2008, s. 141-53.
• KOSKENNIEMI Martti, “Why History of International Law Today?”, Journal of the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, S. 4 (2004), s. 61-66.
• LAWRENCE Thomas Joseph, The Principles of International Law, Boston, Heath, 1900.
• LORCA Arnulf Becker, “Universal International Law: Nineteenth-Century Histories of Imposition and Appropriation”, Harvard International Law Journal, C. 51, S. 2 (2010), s. 475-552.
• LORIMER James, The Institutes of the Law of Nations, Edinburgh and London, W. Blackwood and sons, 1883.19
• MÄLKSOO Lauri, “International Law between Universality and Regional Fragmentation: The Historical Case of Russia”, Research Handbook on the Theory and History of International Law, ed. Alexander Orakhelashvili, Cheltenham, 2011, s. 456-77.
• MERAY Seha L., Devletler Hukukuna Giriş, Üçüncü Bası., Ankara, AÜSBF Yayınları, 1968.
• MORGAN Lewis H., Ancient Society, Chicago, Charles H. Kerr And Company, 1877.
• NEFF Stephen C., Justice among Nations: A History of International Law, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2014.
• NORADOUNGHIAN Gabriel, Recueil d’actes internationaux de l’Empire ottoman, F. Pichon, 1902.OPPENHEIM Lassa, International Law, London, Longmans, Green, and co., 1905.
• ORAKHELASHVILI Alexander, “The Idea of European International Law”, European Journal of International Law, C. 17, S. 2 (2006), s. 315-47.
• ÖZSU Umut, “Ottoman Empire”, The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law, ed. Bardo Fassbender, Anne Peters, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012, s. 123-37.
• ÖZSU Umut, “The Ottoman Empire, the Origins of Extraterritoriality, and International Legal Theory”, The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law, ed. Anne Ford, Florian Hoffman, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016, s. 123-37.
• PALABIYIK Mustafa Serdar, “The Emergence of the Idea of ‘International Law’ in the Ottoman Empire before the Treaty of Paris (1856)”, Middle Eastern Studies, C. 50, S. 2 (2014), s. 233-51.
• PAZARCI Hüseyin, Uluslararası Hukuk Dersleri I. Kitap, Gözden Geçirilmiş 8. Baskı., Ankara, Turhan Kitabevi, 1999.
• PHILLIMORE Robert, Commentaries upon International Law, Philadelphia, T. & J. W. Johnson, 1854.
• PHILLIMORE Robert, Commentaries upon International Law, Second Edition., London, Butterworth, 1871.
• PITTS Jennifer, “Boundaries of Victorian International Law”, Victorian Visions of Global Order, ed. Duncan Bell, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• RODOGNO Davide, “European Legal Doctrines on Intervention and the Status of the Ottoman Empire within the ‘Family of Nations’ Throughout the Nineteenth Century”, Journal of the History of International Law, C. 18, S. 1 (2016), s. 5-41.
• SCHMITT Carl, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of Jus Publicum Europaeum, çev. G. L. Ulmen, New York, Telos Press Publishing, 2006.
• SCHWARZENBERGER Georg, “The Standard of Civilisation in International Law”, Current Legal Problems, C. 8, S. 1 (1955), s. 212-34.
• SCUPIN Hans Ulrich, “History of International Law, 1815 to World War I”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Online Edition), (14.11.2016), http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/epil.
• STIVACHTIS Yannis A., “Civilization and International Society: the Case of European Union Expansion”, Contemporary Politics, C. 14, S. 1 (2008), s. 71-89.
• SUSA Nasīm, The Capitulatory Régime of Turkey: Its History, Origin, and Nature, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1933.
• SYLVEST Casper, “The Foundations of Victorian International Law”, Victorian Visions of Global Order, ed. Duncan Bell, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, s. 47-66.
• TANÖR Bülent, Osmanlı-Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri, 23. b., İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2013.
• TARAZONA Liliana Obregón, “The Civilized and the Uncivilized”, The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law, ed. Bardo Fassbender, Anne Peters, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014, s. 917-40.
• TWISS Travers, The Law of Nations Considered as Independent Political Communities, Second Edition., Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1884.
• TWISS Travers, Two Introductory Lectures on the Science of International Law, Londra, Longman, Brown, Green , and Longmans, 1856.
• TZOUVALA Konstantina, Letters of Blood and Fire: A Socio- Economic History of International Law, (Doktora Tezi), Durham, Durham Üniversitesi, 2016.
• WALKER Thomas Alfred, The Science of International Law, Littleton, F.B. Rothman, 1893.WESTLAKE John, Chapters on the Principles of International Law, Cambridge, University press, 1894.
• WALKER Thomas Alfred, International Law, Cambridge, The University Press, 1904.
• WALKER Thomas Alfred, The Collected Papers of John Westlake on Public International Law, ed. Lassa Oppenheim, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1914.
• WOOD Hugh McKinnon, “The Treaty of Paris and Turkey’s Status in International Law”, The American Journal of International Law, C. 37, S. 2 (1943), s. 262-74.20
• YASUAKI Onuma, “When Was the Law of International Society Born”, Journal of the History of International Law, C. 2, S. 1 (2000), s. 1-66.
• YURDUSEV A. Nuri, “The Middle East Encounter with the Expansion of European International Society”, International Society and the Middle East, ed. Barry Buzan, Ana Gonzalez-Palaez, Palgrave, 2009, s. 70-91.