Neolitik’ten Demir Çağı’na Anadolu'da Tilki-İnsan İlişkileri: Zooarkeolojik ve Etnoarkeolojik Bir Değerlendirme

Yıl 2024, Sayı: 21, 307 - 331, 10.06.2024

Muhammed Eyyub Dalar

https://doi.org/10.46250/kulturder.1447505

Öz

Bu çalışma, zooarkeolojik ve etnoarkeolojik veriler kullanarak Erken Neolitik Çağ'dan Kalkolitik, Tunç ve Demir Çağ’a dek Anadolu'daki tilkilerin rollerini araştırmaktadır. Anadolu'daki 31 farklı yerleşimden toplanan zooarkeolojik verilerle, tilki-insan ilişkilerinin gelişim süreci incelenmiştir. Bunlarla birlikte çalışmada, tilkilerin beslenme, kürk, sembolizm ve ritüel gibi çeşitli yönleri ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca Anadolu’da ve günümüz avcı-toplayıcı topluluklarının etnografik verileri kullanılarak, tilki-insan ilişkilerinin bilinmeyen yönlerine dair etnoarkeolojik bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre; avcılık-toplayıcılık dönemlerinde tilkilerin küçük memeli hayvan avcılığının beslenme ekonomisinde önemli bir rol oynadığı, Neolitik Çağ'ın gelişimiyle birlikte ise kürk, sembolizm, ritüel gibi pek çok amaçla kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Neolitik Çağ sonra tilkilerin kullanımındaki çeşitliliğin azaldığı ve daha çok pastoral grupların tilkileri beslenme ve sembolik amaçlarla kullandıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. Tunç Çağ boyunca devletleşme süreciyle paralel olarak, sadece edebi metinlerde tilkiler hakkında kayıtlar bulunmuştur. Ancak, edebi metinlerde yansıtılmayan ilişkilerin arka planı hakkında yeterli veri olmamasına rağmen, Anadolu'da arkeolojik dönemler boyunca tilkilerle insanlar arasındaki ilişkilerin pastoralist topluluklar tarafından sürdürüldüğü anlaşılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

tilki, Neolitik, Demir Çağ, etnoarkeoloji, zooarkeoloji

Fox-Human Relations in Anatolia from the Neolithic to the Iron Age: A Zooarchaeological and Ethnoarchaeological Assessment

Öz

This study investigates the roles of foxes in Anatolia from the Early Neolithic to the Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages using zooarchaeological and ethnoarchaeological data. The developmental process of fox-human relationships was examined using zooarchaeological data collected from 31 different settlements in Anatolia. Additionally, various aspects of foxes such as diet, fur, symbolism, and rituals were addressed in the study. Furthermore, an ethnoarchaeological evaluation was conducted on unknown aspects of fox-human relationships using ethnographic data from Anatolia and contemporary hunter-gatherer communities. According to the findings, it is understood that foxes played an important role in the subsistence economy of small mammal hunting during the hunter-gatherer periods, while they were utilized for various purposes such as fur, symbolism, and rituals with the development of the Neolithic Ages. It has been revealed that the diversity in the use of foxes decreased after the Neolithic period, and they were predominantly used for dietary and symbolic purposes by pastoral groups. Parallel to the process of state formation during the Bronze Ages, records about foxes were found only in literary texts. However, despite the lack of sufficient data on the background of relationships not reflected in literary texts, it is understood that relationships between foxes and humans in Anatolia were maintained by pastoralist communities throughout historical periods.

Anahtar Kelimeler

fox, Neolithic, Iron Age, ethnoarchaeology, zooarchaeology

Kaynakça

• Alcantara, Roger et al. (2023). “Hunting at the Fringe of the Desert: Animal Exploitation at Nahal Efe (Northern Negev, Israel) during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B”. Paléorient, 49(1): 163-189.
• Arbuckle, Benjamin S. & Erek, C. M. (2012). Late Epipaleolithic Hunters of the Central Taurus: Faunal Remains from Direkli Cave, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey”. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 22(6): 694-707.
• Arbuckle, Benjamin S. & Hammer, Emily L. (2019). “The Rise of Pastoralism in the Ancient Near East”. Journal of Archaeological Research, 27: 391-449.
• Arbuckle, Benjamin S. (2009). “Chalcolithic Caprines, Dark Age Dairy, and Byzantine Beef: A First Look at Animal Exploitation at Middle and Late Holocene Cadir Hoyuk, North Central Turkey”. Anatolica, 35: 179-224.
• Atıcı, Levent (2011). Before the Revolution: Epipaleolithic Subsistence in The Western Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Oxford: BAR Publishing.
• Atıcı, Levent (2014). “Commingled Bone Assemblages: Insights from Zooarchaeology and Taphonomy of a Bone Bed at Karain B Cave, SW Turkey”. Commingled and Disarticulated Human Remains. Eds. Osterholtz, Anna et al. New York, NY: Springer.
• Ay, Eyyüp (2001). “2000 Yılı Müslümantepe Kazısı”. 23. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, C.2. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 415-422.
• Baker, Polydora (2008). Economy, Environment and Society at Kilise Tepe, Southern Central Turkey Faunal Remains from the 1994-1998”. Archaeozoology of the Near East, VIII: 407-429.
• Baumann, Chris et al. (2020). “Fox Dietary Ecology as a Tracer of Human Impact on Pleistocene Ecosystems”. Plos One, 15(7): e0235692.
• Beckman, Gary (2010). “Temple Building among the Hittites”. From the Foundations of the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Eds. M. J. Boda & J. R. Novotny. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 71-97.
• Beekes, Robert & Beek, Lucien van (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden: Brill.
• Berthon, R. (2018). “A ritual Deposit of Fox Remains at Ovçular Tepesi (Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan) and its Relation with the Pastoral Nature of Late Chalcolithic Communities”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 20: 930-936.
• Berthon, Remi (2011). Animal Exploitation in the Upper Tigris River Valley (Turkey) between the 3rd and the 1st Millennia BC. Doctoral Thesis. Kiel: Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel.
• Berthon, Remi (2014). “Small but Varied: The Role of Rural Settlements in the Diversification of Subsistence Practices as Evidenced in the Upper Tigris River Area (Southeastern Turkey) during the Second and First Millennia BCE”. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies, 2: 317-329.
• Boessneck, Joachim & Driesch, Angela von den (1974). “The Excavations at Korucutepe, Turkey, 1968-1970: Preliminary Report. Part IX: The Animal Remains”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 33(1): 109-112.
• Buitenhuis, Hijlke et al. (2018). “The Faunal Remains from Levels 3 and 2 of Aşıklı Höyük: Evidence for Emerging Management Practices”. The Early settlement at Aşıklı Höyük: Essays in Honor of Ufuk Esin. Eds. Mihriban Özbaşaran et al. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları, 281-324.
• Burney, Charles A., & Lang, David M. (2001). The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus. Sheffield, UK: Phoenix.
• Carruthers, Denise B. (2003). Hunting and Herding in Central Anatolian Prehistory: The 9th and 7th Millennium Sites at Pinarbaşı. Doctoral Thesis. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.
• Cauvin, Jacques (2000). The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Chalendar, Verene (2016). “What Reality for Animals in the Mesopotamian Medical Texts? Plant vs Animal”. Anthropozoologica, 51(2): 97-103.
• Çilingiroğlu, Çiler (2005). “The Concept of ‘Neolithic Package’: Considering its Meaning and Applicability”. Documenta Praehistorica, 32: 1-13.
• Couto-Ferreira, M. Erica (2014). “She Will Give Birth Easily: Therapeutic Approaches to Childbirth in 1st Millennium BCE Cuneiform Sources”. Dynamis, 34(2): 289-315.
• Davis, Simon J. M. (1981). “The Effects of Temperature Change and Domestication on the Body Size of Late Pleistocene to Holocene Mammals of Israel”. Paleobiology, 7(1), 101-114.
• Dedeoğlu, Fulya et al. (2023). “Archaeological and Analytical Investigation of a New Neolithic Sıte in Western Anatolia: Ekşi Höyük (Denizli, Turkey)”. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 23(1): 1-29.
• Deniz, Eşref ve Şentuna, Can (1988). “Kuruçay Höyük Kazısı Arkeobiyolojik Materyalinin Tüm Değerlendirilmesi”. IV. Arkeometri Sonuçları Toplantısı. Ankara: Kültür Varlıkları ve Müzeler Genel Müdürlüğü, 169-185.
• Emra Stephanie et al. (2023). “Stone Cold Foxes–Biology, Archaeology, and Iconography in Upper Mesopotamia”. Animals and Humans through Time and Space: Investigating Diverse Relationships, Essays in Honor of Joris Peters. Documenta Archaeobiologiae, 16: 107-123.
• Frame, Sheelagh, S. (2001). Çatalhöyük 2001 Archive Report. https://catalhoyuk.com/archive_reports/2001/ar01_10.html (Erişim: 26.03.2024).
• Geptner, Vladimir G. et al. (1988). Mammals of the Soviet Union. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation.
• Gottheil, Richard (1899). “Contributions to Syriac Folk-Medicine”. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 20: 186-205.
• Gülçur, Sevil (1999). “Güvercinkayasi 1997”. Anatolica XXV, 25: 53-85.
• Gündem, Can Yümni (2010). Animal Based Economy in Troia and the Troas during the Maritime Troy Culture (c. 3000-2200 BC.) and A General Summary for West Anatolia. Doctoral Dissertation. Tübingen: Universität Tübingen.
• Gündem, Can Yümni (2012). “The Subsistence Economy in Inland Northwestern Anatolia During the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age”. Masrop E-Dergi, 6(7): 243-300.
• Hall, G. Edward & Obbard, Martyn E. (1987). “Pelt Preparation”. Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Eds. M. Novak et al. Ontario: Ontario Trappers Association, 842-861.
• Hodder, Ian (1990). The Domestication of Europe: Structure and Contingency in Neolithic Societies. Oxford: B. Blackwell.
• Hoffner, Harry A. (1967). “An English-Hittite Glossary”. Revue Hittite et Asianique, 25(80): 7-99.
• Hollenstein, Daria & Geraldine, Middea (2016). “The Faunal Remains from the Square Building Horizon in the Valley West of Sarıkale, Boğazköy-Hattuša, Turkey (16th/15th Century BC)”. Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in der Westlichen Oberstadt von Hattuša I. Eds. A. Schachner et al. Berlin: De Gruyter, 147-181.
• Home, Chandrima et al. (2018). “Canine Conundrum: Domestic Dogs as an Invasive Species and Their Impacts on Wildlife in India”. Animal Conservation, 21(4): 275-282.
• Horwitz, Liora Kolska et al. (2004). “Animals and Ritual During the Levantine PPNB: A Case Study from the Site of Kfar Hahoresh, Israel”. Anthropozoologica, 39: 165-178.
• Howell-Meurs, Sarah (2001). Early Bronze and Iron Age Animal Exploitation in Northeastern Anatolia: The Faunal Remains from Sos Höyük and Büyüktepe Höyük. Oxford: Archaeopress.
• Hughes, Erica (2015). “Of Fox and Man: Physical Relationships”. Meaning and λόγος: Proceedings from the Early Professional Interdisciplinary Conference. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Published, 205-223.
• İlgezdi, Gülçin (2008). The Domestication Process in Southeastern Turkey: The Evidence of Mezraa-Teleilat. Doctoral Thesis. Tübingen: Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen.
• İpek, Bahattin (2019). Figural Motifs on Halaf Pottery: An Iconographical Study of Late Neolithic Society in Northern Mesopotamia. Master's Thesis. Ankara: Bilkent University.
• Kamjan, Safoora (2017). Exploring The Faunal Distribution Pattern in Late Neolithic Ulucak Höyük, Izmir, Turkey: An Investigation on the Economic Organization of Domestic and Non-Domestic Units. Master's Thesis. Ankara: Middle East Technical University.
• Kansa, Sarah W. et al. (2009). “Resource Exploitation at Late Neolithic Domuztepe: Faunal and Botanical Evidence”. Current Anthropology, 50(6): 897-914.
• Kent, Susan (1993). “Variability in Faunal Assemblages: The Influence of Hunting Skill, Sharing, Dogs, and Mode of Cooking on Faunal Remains at a Sedentary Kalahari Community”. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 12(4): 323-385.
• Konstantinidis, George (2024). Dionysus the Liberator. https://researchgate.net/publication/378858315_Dionysus_the_Liberator (Erişim: 10.05.2024).
• Kurten, Björn (1965). The Carnivora of the Palestine Caves. Helsinki: Tilgman.
• Lev, Efraim (2003). “Traditional Healing with Animals (Zootherapy): Medieval to Present-Day Levantine Practice”. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 85(1): 107-118.
• Lloyd, Huw Glen (1980). The Red Fox. London: Batsford.
• Macdonald, David (1987). Running with the Fox. London: Unwin Hyman.
• Maher, Lisa A. et al. (2011). “A Unique Human-Fox Burial from a Pre-Natufian Cemetery in the Levant (Jordan)”. Plos One, 6(1): e15815.
• McArdle, John (1990). “Halafian Fauna at Girikihaciyan”. Girikihaciyan: A Halafian Site in Southeastern Turkey. Eds. Patty J. Watson & Steven A. LeBlanc. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, 109-120.
• Miller, Naomi F. et al. (2009). “From Food and Fuel to Farms and Flocks: The Integration of Plant and Animal Remains in the Study of the Agropastoral Economy at Gordion, Turkey”. Current Anthropology, 50(6): 915-924.
• Miyake, Yutaka et al. (2009). “Preliminary Report on the Excavations at Salat Camii Yanı in Southeast Anatolia: 2004-2008 Season”. Tsukuba Archaeological Studies (in Japanese), 20: 75-112.
• Nobis, Günter (1976). “Tierreste aus Tamassos auf Zypern. Fundmaterial der Ausgrabungen von 1970 bis 1975 (mit einer Einführung von Hans-Günter Buchholz)”. Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica, 7/8(77): 271-300.
• Omar, Lubna (2013). “Assessing the Patterns of Subsistence Strategies in Late Neolithic Settlements in the Northern Mesopotamian Region”. Archaeological Review from Cambridge, 28: 14-31.
• Onar, Vedat et al. (2005). “Morphometric Examination of Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) from the Van-Yoncatepe Necropolis in Eastern Anatolia”. International Journal of Morphology, 23(3): 253-260.
• Özdoğan, Mehmet (2010). “Sorting Neolithic Package”. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 883-897.
• Pawlowska, Kamilla & Marciszak, Adrian (2018). “Small Carnivores from a Late Neolithic Burial Chamber at Çatalhöyük, Turkey: Pelts, Rituals, and Rodents”. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 10(5): 1225-1243. Peters, Joris & Schmidt, Klaus (2004). “Animals in the Symbolic World of Pre-Pottery Neolithic Göbekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey: A Preliminary Assessment”. Anthropozoologica, 39: 179-218.
• Pişkin, Evangila & Takaoğlu, Turan (2021). “Animal Exploitation at the Subsistence Base of the Chalcolithic Gülpınar Community”. Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi Arkeoloji Dergisi, 27: 45-59.
• Reshamwala, Hussain S. et al. (2021). “Successful Neighbour: Interactions of the Generalist Carnivore Red Fox with Dogs, Wolves and Humans for Continued Survival in Dynamic Anthropogenic Landscapes”. Global Ecology and Conservation, 25: e01446.
• Reshef, Hagar et al. (2019). “Tails of Animism: A Joint Burial of Humans and Foxes in Pre-Pottery Neolithic Motza, Israel”. Antiquity, 93(371): e28.
• Rick, Torben et al. (2008). “Dogs, Humans and Island Ecosystems: The Distribution, Antiquity and Ecology of Domestic Dogs (Canis Familiaris) on California’s Channel Islands, USA”. The Holocene, 18(7): 1077-1087.
• Russell, Nerissa et al. (2012). “More on the Çatalhöyük Mammal Remains”. Humans and Landscapes of Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 2003-2009 Seasons at Çatalhöyük. Los Angele, CA: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 213-258.
• Samei, Siavash et al. (2020). “Economic and Symbolic Role of Animals during the Late Chalcolithic Period of Areni-1 Cave, Armenia”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 33: 102524.
• Sapir-Hen, Lidar & Fulton, Deidre N. (2023). “A Dog’s Life in the Iron Age of the Southern Levant: Connecting the Textual and Archaeological Evidence”. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 42(2): 152-165.
• Schmidt, Klaus (2006). Göbekli Tepe, En Eski Tapınağı Yapanlar. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları. Sequeira, Darrell M. (1980). “Comparison of The Diet of the Red Fox”. The Red Fox: Symposium on Behaviour and Ecology. Ed. E. Zimen. Berlin: Springer, 35-51.
• Siddiq, Abu B. & Işıklı, Mehmet (2023). “Tracing Royal Consumption and Socio-Symbolism through Faunal Remains: Zooarchaeology of the Iron Age–Urartu Ayanis Citadel, Eastern Turkiye”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 55: 104505.
• Siddiq, Abu B. (2019a). “Animal Remains of Alaybeyi Höyük”. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 43(6): 767-783.
• Siddiq, Abu B. (2019b). Tarih Öncesi Toplumlarda İnsan-Hayvan İlişkisi ve Orta Anadolu Çanak Çömleksiz Neolitik Dönem Faunası. Konya: Çizgi.
• Siddiq, Abu B. et al. (2021). “The Iron Age Dogs from Alaybeyi Höyük, Eastern Anatolia”. Animals, 11(4): 1163.
• Siddiq, Abu B., & Şanlı, Süleyman (2020). “Animals and Pastoral Groups in the Mountainous Ömerli District of Southeast Anatolia”. Anthrozoös, 33(2), 153-173.
• Silibolatlaz Baykara, Derya (2014). Zooarcheologial Analysis on Faunal Remains from Salat Tepe, South Eastern-Turkey. Doctoral Thesis. Ankara: Middle East Technical University.
• Sövegjarto, Szilvia (2021). The Fox in Ancient Mesopotamia: From Physical Characteristics to Anthropomorphized Literary Figure. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
• Strong, Sarah M. (2009). “The Most Revered of Foxes: Knowledge of Animals and Animal Power in an Ainu Kamui Yukar”. Asian Ethnology, 68(1): 27-54.
• Tekin, Halil (2019). “Karavelyan Excavations within the Ilısu Project”. Anadolu, 45: 197-209.
• Uther, Hans-Jörg (2006). The Fox in World Literature: Reflections on a Fictional Animal”. Asian Folklore Studies, 65(2): 133-160.
• Yakar, Jak (2014). Eski Anadolu Toplumunun Arkeolojideki Yansımaları. İstanbul: Homer Kitabevi.
• Yelözer, Sera & Christidou, Rozalia (2020). “The Foot of the Hare, The Tooth of the Deer and the Shell of the Mollusc: Neolithic Osseous Ornaments from Aşıklı Höyük (Central Anatolia, Turkey)”. Beauty and the Eye of the Beholder: Personal Adornments across the Millennia. Eds. Monica Margarit & Adina Boroneant. Targovişte: Cetatea de Scaun, 197-222.
• Yener, K. Aslıhan et al. (2000). “Tell Kurdu Excavations 1999”. Anatolica, 26: 31-117.
• Yeomans, Lisa et al. (2019). “Close Companions: Early Evidence for Dogs in Northeast Jordan and the Potential Impact of New Hunting Methods”. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 53: 161-173.
• Yeshurun, Reuven et al. (2009). “The Role of Foxes in the Natufian Economy: A View from Mount Carmel, Israel”. Before Farming, 1: 1-15.
• Zeder, Melinda A. & Spitzer, Megan D. (2016). „New Insights into Broad Spectrum Communities of the Early Holocene Near East: The Birds of Hallan Çemi”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 151, 140-159.