الاستمرارية السياسية للتغيير الاقتصادي: دراسة عن دول الخليج من خلال قطر والإمارات العربية المتحدة

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 3, 269 - 292, 25.04.2023

Başak Özoral , İlke Civelekoğlu

https://doi.org/10.47932/ortetut.1219045

Öz

كان العنصران الرئيسيان للنظام العالمي الجديد الذي تأسس في التسعينيات هما الاقتصاد الليبرالي والديمقراطية. يهدف هذا المقال إلى دراسة آثار السياسات الليبرالية الجديدة على الهياكل السياسية التقليدية والسلطوية من خلال أمثلة دول مجلس التعاون الخليجي وقطر والإمارات العربية المتحدة. هاتان الدولتان الخاضعتان للحكم الملكي ، حيث لا يزال الدين والتقاليد القبلية نشطة في الإدارة السياسية ، هما مثالان مناسبان لدراسة الأنظمة "الاستبدادية". في الوقت الذي أصبحت فيه قطر والإمارات العربية المتحدة أغنياء من خلال الانضمام إلى الأسواق العالمية مع عائدات النفط والغاز الخاصة بهما ، فقد شهدتا جزئيًا التحرير مع بعض المبادرات السياسية في هذه العملية. ومع ذلك ، لم تؤد خطوات التحرير هذه إلى تحول حقيقي ودمقرطة في الهيكل السياسي. الهدف من هذه الدراسة هو دراسة أسباب عدم تعرض أساليب الإدارة الاستبدادية لتغييرات سياسية جادة على الرغم من التكامل العميق من الناحية التجارية والمالية مع الأسواق العالمية ، والتي هي مظهر من مظاهر التحرير الاقتصادي ، من خلال هذين البلدين. تجادل الدراسة بأن نجاح دول مجلس التعاون الخليجي في الجمع بين مواطنيها والجهات الفاعلة العالمية على أرضية مشتركة من خلال إضافة ثقافة الاستهلاك إلى نموذج اقتصاد السوق المحدد من خلال التجارة الحرة والليبرالية المالية يلعب دورًا مهمًا في ضمان استمرارية الهيكل السياسي الاستبدادي. . كما سيناقش المقال ، فإن الرفاهية الاقتصادية العالية وحرية الاستهلاك التي ظهرت نتيجة السياسات النيوليبرالية منعت هذه المجتمعات من التشكيك في شرعية إدارة الدولة الاستبدادية وتعميق التغيير السياسي في هذه البلدان. بينما تبحث هذه المقالة في أمثلة قطر والإمارات العربية المتحدة ، وتوضح كيف يمكن لليبرالية الجديدة أن تتعايش مع الأنظمة الاستبدادية ، فإنها تهدف إلى المساهمة في الأدبيات الخاصة بدراسات الشرق الأوسط من خلال مناقشة سبب عدم تعميق تجارب التحرر السياسي لمملكيات دول مجلس التعاون الخليجي وكيف لم تتعمق الحكومات. في هذه البلدان تمكنوا من توطيد سلطتهم على السكان على الرغم من بعض التوسعات.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri, Katar, neo-liberalizm, otoriter rejimler, siyasi liberalleşme

ECONOMIC CHANGE POLITICAL CONTINUITY: A STUDY OF THE GULF MONARCHIES THROUGH QATAR AND THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Öz

The new world order that was established in the 1990s had two important elements, liberal economy and democracy. This article aims to address the impact of neoliberal policies on the traditional and authoritarian Gulf states of Qatar and United Arab Emirates (UAE). As religion and tribalism are still important features of these two monarchies, Qatar and UAE constitute proper cases for studying authoritarian regimes. Qatar and UAE while integrating themselves with the global world markets through sale of oil have also experienced partial political liberalization. However, this partial liberalization has never turned into democratization. This article aims to explore why authoritarian regimes, which have integrated themselves deeply with global markets through trade and financial liberalization fail to experience democratization in the light of Qatar and UAE cases. The article argues that Gulf monarchies` success in maintaining their authoritarian rule lies in co-opting global capitalist actors as well their local citizens through consumption culture and thus, forming an electoral coalition with them. As this article claims, high GDP per capita coupled with freedom to consume have enabled these regimes to survive without encountering any crisis of legitimacy or severe pressure to change. With its focus on two cases, Qatar and UAE, the article aims to contribute to literature by demonstrating that in sharp contrast to what has been argued, neoliberalism can coexist with authoritarianism easily and secondly, the article aims to make its contribution to Middle Eastern studies by showing how Gulf monarchies have strengthened their rule on people despite partial liberalization.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri, Katar, neo-liberalizm, otoriter rejimler, siyasi liberalleşme

Ekonomik Değişim Siyasi Süreklilik: Katar ve Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri Üzerinden Körfez Monarşilerinin İncelenmesi

Öz

1990’larda kurulan yeni dünya düzeninin iki temel unsuru liberal ekonomi ve demokrasi olmuştur. Bu makale, neo-liberal politikaların geleneksel ve otoriter siyasi yapılar üzerindeki etkisini KİK ülkeleri olan Katar ve Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri (BAE) örnekleri üzerinden incelemeyi hedeflemektedir. Dinin ve aşiret geleneğinin siyasi yönetimde hala etkin olduğu monarşiyle yönetilen bu iki ülke ‘’otoriter’’ rejimlerin incelenmesi için uygun örneklerdir. Katar ve BAE petrol ve gaz gelirleri ile dünya piyasalarına eklemlenip zenginleşirken bu süreçte bir takım siyasi açılımlarla liberalleşmeyi kısmen deneyimlemişlerdir. Ancak bu liberalleşme adımları siyasi yapıda gerçek bir dönüşüme ve demokratikleşmeye yol açmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı ekonomik liberalleşmenin tezahürü olan küresel piyasalar ile ticari ve finansal anlamda derin bir entegrasyona rağmen, otoriter yönetim şekillerinin ciddi siyasi değişimlere uğramamasının nedenlerini bu iki ülke üzerinden incelemektir. Çalışma, KİK ülkelerinin serbest ticaret ve finansal liberalizm üzerinden tanımladıkları piyasa ekonomisi modeline tüketim kültürünü de eklemleyerek vatandaşlarını ve küresel aktörleri ortak bir paydada buluşturma başarılarının otoriter siyasi yapının sürekliliğini sağlamada önemli bir rol oynadığını öne sürmektedir. Makalede tartışılacağı üzere neoliberal politikalar sonucu ortaya çıkan yüksek ekonomik refah ve tüketim özgürlüğü, bu toplumların otoriter devlet yönetiminin meşruluğunu sorgulamasını ve bu ülkelerdeki siyasi değişiminin derinleşmesini engellemiştir. Bu makale Katar ve BAE örneklerini inceleyerek, neoliberalizmin otoriter rejimler ile nasıl birlikte var olabildiğini gösterirken, KİK monarşilerinin siyasi liberalleşme deneyimlerinin neden derinleşmediğini ve bir takım açılımlara rağmen bu ülkelerdeki yönetimlerin nüfus üzerindeki güçlerini nasıl pekiştirebildiklerini tartışarak Ortadoğu çalışmaları literatürüne katkı sağlamayı hedeflemektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri, Katar, neo-liberalizm, otoriter rejimler, siyasi liberalleşme, Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri, Katar, neo-liberalizm, otoriter rejimler, siyasi liberalleşme

Kaynakça

• Al-Beraidi, Abdullah. “The Trap of Neoliberalism for GCC Countries”. Contemporary Arab Affairs 11, sy.4 (Aralık 2018): 63-82.
• Al-Fahad, Abdulaziz . “Ornamental Cons titutionalism: The Saudi Basic Law of Governance” VI. Mediterranean Social and Political Research Meeting yıllık toplantısında bildiri olarak sunulmuştur, Montecatini, İtalya, 16-20 Mart, 2004.
• Al-Katari, Mohammed. The Future of the Arab Gulf Monarchies in the Age of Uncertainities. US Army War College: Strategic Studies Institute, Haziran 2013.
• Al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
• Al-Shehabi, Omar. “Histories of Migration to the Gulf’’. İçinde Transit States: Labour, Migration and Citizenship in the Gulf içinde, haz. Adam Hanieh, Adbulhadi Khalaf ve Omar Al-Shehabi, 123-159. London: Pluto Press: 2014.
• Amr, Hamzawy. “The Saudi Labyrinth: Evaluating the Current Political Opening”. Carnegie Endowment, Middle East Series 68 (Nisan 2006): 465-482.
• Anderson, Lisa. “Dynasts and Nationalists: Why Monarchies Survive”. Middle East Monarchies: The Challenge of Modernity içinde, haz. Joseph Kostiner, 53-71. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.
• Anderson, Lisa. “The State in the Middle East and North Africa”. Comparative Politics 20, sy.1 (1987): 1-18.
• Anoushiravan, Ehteshami. “Power Sharing and Elections in the Middle East”. Bound to Cooperate – Europe and the Middle East içinde, haz. Sven Behrendt ve Christian Hanelt, 135-178. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 2000.
• Biebricher, Thomas. “Neoliberalism and Authoritarianism”. Global Perspectives 1, sy.1 (2020)
• Brandon, Friedman. “The Arab Gulf States: Balancing Regional Security and Domestic Political Changes”. The Middle East Book Review 4, sy.1 (2013): 43-56.
• Bruff, Ian. "The Rise of Authoritarian Neoliberalism". Rethinking Marxism 26, sy.1, (2014):113-129
• Brumberg, Daniel. “The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy”. Islam and Democracy in the Middle East içinde, haz. Larry Diamond, 35-47. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
• Brumberg, Daniel. “Authoritarian Legacies and Reform Strategies in the Arab World”. Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World içinde, haz. Rex Brynen, Bahdat Korany ve Paul Noble, 229-260. Boulder, CO.: Lynne Riender, vol. 1, 1995.
• Brumberg, Daniel. “Liberalization versus Democracy: Understanding Arab Political Reform”, Middle East Series Working Papers, Democracy and Rule of Law Project No:37, Washington: Carnigie Endowment for International Peace, Mayıs 2003.
• Canterbury, Dennis C. Neoliberal Democratization and New Authoritarianism. London: Routledge, 2005
• Crystal, Jill. ve Abdullah al-Shayeji. “The Pro-Democracy Agenda in Kuwait”, Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World içinde, haz. Rex Brynen ve Paul Noble, 101-126. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1998.
• Crystal, Jill. Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1995.
• Dani, Rodrik. “Institutions for High-Quality Growth: What They Are and How To Acquire Them”. Studies in Comparative International Development 35, sy.3 (2000): 3–31.
• Davidson, Christopher. Dubai, The Vulnerability of Success. London: Hurst ve Company, 2008.
• Davidson, Christopher. The United Arab Emirates: A Study in Survival. Bouder: Lynne Rienner, 2005.
• Delacroix, Jacques. “The Distributive State in the World System”. Studies in Comparative International Development 15, sy.3 (1980): 3-21
• Ennis, A. Crystal. “Reading Entrepreneunial Power in Small Gulf States”. International Journal 73, sy.4 (Aralık 2018): 573-595.
• Friedman, Thomas L. ‘’The Scary Hidden Stressor’’. The New York Times. Son erişim tarihi: 9 Aralık 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/03/opinion/sunday/friedman-the-scary-hidden-stressor.html
• Frisch, Hillel. “Why Monarchies Persist: Balancing Between Internal and External Vulnerability”. Review of International Studies 37, sy.1 (2011): 167-184.
• Giovanni, Parolin. “Generations of Gulf Constitutions: Paths and Perspectives”. Constitutional Reform and Political Participation in the Gulf içinde, haz. Khalaf ve Luciani, 51-87. Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006.
• Guzansky, Yoel. “The Gulf Monarchies: Is Spring far Behind?’’. The Gulf Monarchies: One Year of the Arab Spring içinde, haz. Benedetta Berti ve Yoel Guzansky,42-47. Institute of National Studies:2012.
• Herb, Michael. “Princes, Parliaments, and The Prospects for Democracy in the Gulf”. Authoritarianism in the Middle East içinde, haz. Marsha Pripstein Posusney ve Mechele Penner Angrist, 169-191. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2005.
• Herb, Michael. The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2014.
• Hisham, Sharabi. Neo-Patriarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in the Arab World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
• Huntington, Samuel P. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
• Inglehart, Ronald. “The Renaissance of Political Culture”. The American Political Science Review 82, sy.4 (1988): 1203-1230.
• İlias, M. H. “Neoliberalism and the New Means of Art of Government in the Gulf Monarchies”. State-Society Relations in the Arab Gulf States içinde, haz. Mazhar Al-Zoby ve Birol Başkan, 123-140. Berlin: Gerlach Press, 2014.
• Kaçar, Ömer. ‘’Katar'da Seçim-Aşiret İlişkisi’’, Independent. Son erişim tarihi: 6 Kasım 2022, https://www.indyturk.com/node/480781/t%C3%BCrki%CC%87yeden-sesler/katarda-se%C3%A7im-a%C5%9Firet-ili%C5%9Fkisi.
• Kapiszewski, Andrzej. “Elections and Parliamentary Activity in the GCC States”. Constitutional Reform and Political Participation in the Gulf içinde, haz. Abdulhadi Khalaf ve Giacomo Luciani,78-110. Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006.
• Learning, Lumen. Boundless World History. New York: Suny Oer Service, 2018.
• Lewis, Bernard. “A Historical Overview”. Islam and Democracy in the Middle East içinde, haz. Larry Diamond, 359-375. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
• Lindblom, C.E. Politics and Markets. New York: Basic Books, 1977.
• Lipset, Samuel M. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy, Economic Development and Political Development”. American Political Science Review 53, sy.1 (1959): 69-81.
• Lipset, Seymour M., Kyoung-Ryung Seong ve John Charles Torres. “A Comparative Analysis of the Social Requisites of Democracy”. International Social Science Journal 45 (1993): 155-175.
• Lucas, Russell E. “Monarchical Authoritarianism: Survival and Political Liberalization in a Middle Eastern Regime Type”. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 36, sy.1 (2004): 103-119.
• Luciani, Giacomo. “Democracy vs Shura in the Age of the Internet”. Constitutional Reform and Political Participation in the Gulf, içinde, haz. Khalaf ve Luciani, 274-297, 2004.
• Marciniak, Ruth ve Marwa Gad Mohsen. “Homogeneity in Luxury Fashion Consumption: An Exploration of Arab Women”. The Business & Management Review 5, sy.1 (2014): 32-41.
• Mohammad al-Muhanna. “The Saudi Majlis ash-Shura: Domestic Functions and International Role”, Doktora tezi, Institute of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, Durham Universitesi, 2005.
• Moore, Pete W. ve Bassel F. Salloukh. ‘’Struggles. under Authoritarianism: Regimes, States, and Professional Associations in the Arab World’’. International Journal of Middle East Studies 39, sy. 1 (Şubat 2007): 53 – 76.
• Mubarak, Al-Dosari Ibrahim. “Internal Political Developments in the GCC States”. Educational Techniques and Methods in Social Sciences and Humanities (2009): 15-27.
• Nonneman, Gerd. “Patterns of Political Liberalization: Explanations and Modalities”. Political and Economic Liberalization: Dynamics and Linkages in Comparative Perspective içinde, haz. Gerd Nonneman, 46-62. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1996.
• Nonneman, Gerd. “A Comparative Perspective”. Durham University Middle East Papers Sir William Luce Publication Series 6 (21). Son erişim tarihi: 12 Aralık 2022, https://dro.dur.ac.uk/472/1/NonnemanV3.pdf.
• Özoral, Başak ve İlke Civelekoğlu. “Neoliberalism, Self-Identity and Consumer Culture in the UAE”. Examining the Relationship Between Economics and Philosophy içinde, haz. İlkben Akansel, 48-65. Pennsylvania: IGI Global, 2019.
• Paul Aarts ve Gerd Nonneman. “A Triple Nexus: Ideology, Economy, Foreign Policy and the Outlook for the Saudi Polity”. Saudi Arabia in the Balance içinde, haz. Paul Aarts ve Gerd Nonneman, 433-455. New York: New York University Press, 2006.
• Peterson, J.E. . The Age of Imperialism and Its Impact on the Gulf, The Emergence of the Gulf Statesiçinde, haz. J.E. Peterson, 154-190. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
• Peterson, J.E. “The Emergence of Post-Traditional Oman”. University of Durham, Institute for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, Working Paper. Londra: Durham Universitesi, 2005.
• Peterson, John. “The Emergence of Post Taditional Oman”. Durham Middle East Papers, no. 78. Londra: Durham Universitesi, 2005.
• Przeworski, Adam, Michael E. Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub ve Fernando Limongi. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• "Qatar: Freedom in the World 2020 Country Report". Freedom House. Son erişim tarihi: 22 Kasım 2022, https://freedomhouse.org/country/qatar/freedom-world/2020 Rathmell, Andrew ve Kirsten Schulze. “Political Reform in the Gulf: The Case of Qatar’. Middle Eastern Studies 36, sy. 4, (Ekim 2000): 47-62.
• Raymond, Hinnebusch. “Calculated Decompression as a Substitute for Democratisation: Syria”. Political Liberalization & Democratization in the Arab World içinde, haz. Rex Brynen, Bahgat Korany ve Paul Noble, 223-240. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1998.
• Robert Vitalis, America’s Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Saudi Oil Frontier. Standford: Standford University Press, 2022.
• Rodrik, Dani. “Institutions for High-Quality Growth: What They Are and How To Acquire Them”. Studies in Comparative International Development 35, sy.3 (2000): 3–31.
• Ross, Michael L. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?”. World Politics 53, sy.3 (2001): 325-361
• Rusell, Lucas. “Monarchical Authoritarianism: Survival and Political Liberalization in a Middle Eastern Regime Type”. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 36, (2004): 103-119.
• Saymor, Martin Lipset. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy”. American Political Science Review 53, sy.1 (Mart 1959): 69-105.
• Schmitter, Philippe. “Crisis and Mutation in the Institutions of Representation in ‘Real-Existing’ European Democracies: National and Supra-National”. Journal of Democracy 23, sy. 4 (2012): 39-46.
• Sirowy Larry ve Alex Inkeles. “The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review”. Studies in Comparative International Development 25, sy.1 (1990): 126–157
• Steinberg, Guido. “The Wahhabi Ulama and the Saudi State: 1745 to the Present”. Saudi Arabia in the Balance: Political Economy, Societ, Foreign Affairs içinde, haz. Paul Aarts ve Gerd Nonneman, 11-34. New York: New York University Press, 2005.
• Tétreault, Mary Ann ve dğr. Political Change in the Arab Gulf States, Londra: Lynne Rienner, 2011.
• "Third Round Balloting Marks End of Landmark Elections". Human Rights Watch. Son erişim tarihi: 12.11.2022, www.saudi-usrelations.org/newsletter2005/saudi-relations-interest-04-23.html.
• "United Arab Emirates’’. Freedom House. Son erişim tarihi:22.11.2022, https://freedomhouse.org/country/united-arab-emirates/freedom-world/2021
• Vandewalle, Dirk. Libya Since Independence: Oil and State-Building.Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988
• Volcic, Zala ve Mark Andrejevic. “Nation Branding in the Era of Commercial Nationalism”. International Journal of Communication 5, sy.1 (2011): 598-618.
• Wiktorowicz, Quintan. "The Limits of Democracy in the Middle East: The Case of Jordan". Middle East Journal 53, sy.4 (Güz1999): 606-620.