Probiotics, prebiotics and their effects on intestinal and skin health

Year 2021, Volume: 16 Issue: 64, 263 - 289, 28.11.2022

Faruk Galyon , Candan Varlık

Abstract

The human gut microbiota is fundamental to health and is associated with a variety of diseases. Maintaining an intact intestinal barrier plays an important role in preventing tissue injury, pathogen infection and disease development and improving gut health and overall good health. Bacterial translocation can occur when the intestinal barrier function is compromised. Probiotics are live microorganisms that are ingested to promote health. The benefits of probiotics are based on their effects on the intestinal microbiota. There have been multiple studies about the role of probiotics in improving health by treating gastrointestinal, liver and pancreatic disease, atopic dermatitis (AD) and preventing infection. Probiotics like lactic acid and bifidobacterium are widely produced in the food industry and customer demand for these substances is continuously increasing. Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that are utilized by host microorganisms leading to a health benefit. Prebiotic effects include improving defense against pathogens, improving gut microbiota composition, immune modulation, mineral absorption, bowel function, metabolic effects and satiety. Since prebiotics are found in very low amounts in foods, scientists are trying to produce these ingredients on an industrial scale. In this review, the production of probiotics and prebiotics and their effects on intestinal and skin health have been studied.

Keywords

Probiotics, Prebiotics, Intestinal Health, Skin Health

Probiyotikler, Prebiyotikler ve bunların bağırsak ve cilt sağlığı üzerinde etkileri

Abstract

İnsan bağırsak mikrobiyotası sağlığın ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır ve çeşitli hastalıklarla ilişkilendirilmektedir. Sağlam bir bağırsak bariyeri korumak, doku hasarı, patojen enfeksiyonları ve hastalık gelişiminin önlenmesinde, ayrıca bağırsak sağlığı ve genel olarak sağlık durumunun iyileştirmesinde önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Bağırsak bariyerin işlevinin bozulması durumunda, bakteriyel translokasyonu meydana gelebilmektedir. Probiyotikler, sağlığı geliştirmek için vücuda alınan canlı mikroorganizmalardır. Probiyotiklerin faydaları, onların bağırsak mikrobiyotası üzerindeki etkilerine dayanmaktadır. Bağırsak, karaciğer ve pankreas hastalıklarının tedavisinde, atopik dermatitinin (AD) iyileştirmesinde ve enfeksiyonların önlenmesinde probiyotiklerin kullanması hakkında çok sayıda çalışma yapılmıştır. Laktik asit ve bifidobakteri gibi probiyotikler, gıda endüstrisinde yaygın olarak üretilmekte ve bu maddelere yönelik müşteri talebi sürekli artmaktadır. Prebiyotikler, konakçı mikroorganizmalar tarafından kullanılan ve sağlık açısından fayda sağlayan sindirilemeyen gıda bileşenleridir. Prebiyotik etkileri arasında, patojenlere karşı savunmasının ve bağırsak mikrobiyota bileşiminin iyileştirilmesi, bağışıklık modülasyonu, mineral emilimi ve bağırsak işlevinin geliştirilmesi, metabolik etkiler ve tokluk bulunmaktadır. Prebiyotikler gıdalarda çok düşük miktarlarda bulundukları için bilim adamları bu bileşenleri sanayi ölçekte üretmeye çalışıyorlardır. Bu derlemede probiyotikler ve prebiyotiklerin üretimi ve bağırsak ve cilt sağlığı üzerindeki etkisi incelenmiştir.

Keywords

Probiyotik, Prebiyotik, Bağırsak Sağlığı, Cilt Sağlığı

References

• Al-Sheraji, S. H., Ismail, A., Manap, M. Y., Mustafa, S., Yusof, R. M., & Hassan, F. A. (2013). Prebiotics as functional foods: A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(4), 1542–1553.
• Aoudia, N., Rieu, A., Briandet, R., Deschamps, J., Chluba, J., Jego, G., Garrido, C., & Guzzo, J. (2016). Biofilms of Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus fermentum: Effect on stress responses, antagonistic effects on pathogen growth and immunomodulatory properties. Food Microbiology, 53, 51–59.
• Atalan, G., Demirkan, I., Yaman, H., Cihan, M., Önder, F., & Sözmen, M. (2003). Effect of topical kefir application on open wound healing: An in vivo study. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1).
• Bali, V., Panesar, P. S., Bera, M. B., & Kennedy, J. F. (2016). Bacteriocins: recent trends and potential applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(5), 817–834.
• Bassetti, M., Vena, A., Croxatto, A., Righi, E., & Guery, B. (2018). How to manage Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Drugs in Context, 7.
• Boyle, R. J., Robins-Browne, R. M., & Tang, M. L. K. (2006). Probiotic use in clinical practice: what are the risks? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(6), 1256–1264.
• Brouwer, M. L., Wolt‐Plompen, S. A. A., Dubois, A. E. J., Van der Heide, S., Jansen, D. F., Hoijer, M. A., Kauffman, H. F., & Duiverman, E. J. (2006). No effects of probiotics on atopic dermatitis in infancy: a randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 36(7), 899–906.
• Al-Sheraji, S. H., Ismail, A., Manap, M. Y., Mustafa, S., Yusof, R. M., & Hassan, F. A. (2013). Prebiotics as functional foods: A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(4), 1542–1553.
• Aoudia, N., Rieu, A., Briandet, R., Deschamps, J., Chluba, J., Jego, G., Garrido, C., & Guzzo, J. (2016). Biofilms of Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus fermentum: Effect on stress responses, antagonistic effects on pathogen growth and immunomodulatory properties. Food Microbiology, 53, 51–59.
• Atalan, G., Demirkan, I., Yaman, H., Cihan, M., Önder, F., & Sözmen, M. (2003). Effect of topical kefir application on open wound healing: An in vivo study. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1).
• Bali, V., Panesar, P. S., Bera, M. B., & Kennedy, J. F. (2016). Bacteriocins: recent trends and potential applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(5), 817–834.
• Bassetti, M., Vena, A., Croxatto, A., Righi, E., & Guery, B. (2018). How to manage Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Drugs in Context, 7.
• Boyle, R. J., Robins-Browne, R. M., & Tang, M. L. K. (2006). Probiotic use in clinical practice: what are the risks? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83(6), 1256–1264.
• Brouwer, M. L., Wolt‐Plompen, S. A. A., Dubois, A. E. J., Van der Heide, S., Jansen, D. F., Hoijer, M. A., Kauffman, H. F., & Duiverman, E. J. (2006). No effects of probiotics on atopic dermatitis in infancy: a randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 36(7), 899–906.
• Buckholz, R. G., & Gleeson, M. A. G. (1991). Yeast systems for the commercial production of heterologous proteins. Bio/Technology, 9(11), 1067–1072.
• Caicedo, L., Silva, E., & Sánchez, O. (2009). Semibatch and continuous fructooligosaccharides production by Aspergillus sp. N74 in a mechanically agitated airlift reactor. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology: International Research in Process, Environmental & Clean Technology, 84(5), 650–656.
• Carvalho, A. S., Silva, J., Ho, P., Teixeira, P., Malcata, F. X., & Gibbs, P. (2004). Relevant factors for the preparation of freeze-dried lactic acid bacteria. International Dairy Journal, 14(10), 835–847.
• Chen, H., Mao, X., He, J., Yu, B., Huang, Z., Yu, J., Zheng, P., & Chen, D. (2013). Dietary fibre affects intestinal mucosal barrier function and regulates intestinal bacteria in weaning piglets. British Journal of Nutrition, 110(10), 1837–1848.
• Chen, W., & Liu, C. (1996). Production of β-fructofuranosidase by Aspergillus japonicus. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 18(2), 153–160.
• Cho, S.-H., Strickland, I., Boguniewicz, M., & Leung, D. Y. M. (2001). Fibronectin and fibrinogen contribute to the enhanced binding of Staphylococcus aureus to atopic skin. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 108(2), 269–274.
• Collins, M. D., Phillips, B. A., & Zanoni, P. (1989). Deoxyribonucleic acid homology studies of Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus paracasei sp. nov., subsp. paracasei and subsp. tolerans, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus sp. nov., comb. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 39(2), 105–108.
• Collins, S. L., McMillan, A., Seney, S., van der Veer, C., Kort, R., Sumarah, M. W., & Reid, G. (2018). Promising prebiotic candidate established by evaluation of lactitol, lactulose, raffinose, and oligofructose for maintenance of a lactobacillus-dominated vaginal microbiota. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 84(5), e02200-17.
• Costabile, A., Buttarazzi, I., Kolida, S., Quercia, S., Baldini, J., Swann, J. R., Brigidi, P., & Gibson, G. R. (2017). An in vivo assessment of the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of Lactobacillus plantarum ECGC 13110402 in normal to mildly hypercholesterolaemic adults. PLoS One, 12(12), e0187964.
• Crittenden, R., & Playne, M. (2002). Purification of food-grade oligosaccharides using immobilised cells of Zymomonas mobilis. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 58(3), 297–302.
• Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S. J., Berenjian, A., & Ghasemi, Y. (2019). Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. Foods, 8(3), 92.
• Defez, C., Fabbro-Peray, P., Bouziges, N., Gouby, A., Mahamat, A., Daures, J. P., & Sotto, A. (2004). Risk factors for multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa nosocomial infection. Journal of Hospital Infection, 57(3), 209–216.
• Demain, A. L., & Vaishnav, P. (2009). Production of recombinant proteins by microbes and higher organisms. Biotechnology Advances, 27(3), 297–306.
• Durmic, Z., Pethick, D. W., Pluske, J. R., & Hampson, D. J. (1998). Changes in bacterial populations in the colon of pigs fed different sources of dietary fibre, and the development of swine dysentery after experimental infection. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 85(3), 574–582.
• EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. and A. (NDA). (2010). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to live yoghurt cultures and improved lactose digestion (ID 1143, 2976) pursuant to Article 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal, 8(10), 1763.
• Fenster, K., Freeburg, B., Hollard, C., Wong, C., Rønhave Laursen, R., & Ouwehand, A. C. (2019). The production and delivery of probiotics: A review of a practical approach. Microorganisms, 7(3), 83.
• Flint, H. J., Duncan, S. H., Scott, K. P., & Louis, P. (2015). Links between diet, gut microbiota composition and gut metabolism. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 74(1), 13–22.
• Fonseca, F., Cenard, S., & Passot, S. (2015). Freeze-drying of lactic acid bacteria. In Cryopreservation and Freeze-Drying Protocols (pp. 477–488). Springer.
• Gibson, G. R., Hutkins, R., Sanders, M. E., Prescott, S. L., Reimer, R. A., Salminen, S. J., Scott, K., Stanton, C., Swanson, K. S., & Cani, P. D. (2017). Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 14(8), 491.
• Gómez-Conde, M S, García, J., Chamorro, S., Eiras, P., Rebollar, P. G., Pérez de Rozas, A., Badiola, I., De Blas, C., & Carabaño, R. (2007). Neutral detergent-soluble fiber improves gut barrier function in twenty-five-day-old weaned rabbits. Journal of Animal Science, 85(12), 3313–3321.
• Gómez-Conde, María Soledad, de Rozas, A. P., Badiola, I., Pérez-Alba, L., de Blas, C., Carabaño, R., & García, J. (2009). Effect of neutral detergent soluble fibre on digestion, intestinal microbiota and performance in twenty five day old weaned rabbits. Livestock Science, 125(2–3), 192–198.
• Gordon, S. (2008). Elie Metchnikoff: father of natural immunity. European Journal of Immunology, 38(12), 3257–3264. Goulas, A., Tzortzis, G., & Gibson, G. R. (2007). Development of a process for the production and purification of α-and β-galactooligosaccharides from Bifidobacterium bifidum NCIMB 41171. International Dairy Journal, 17(6), 648–656.
• Hegarty, J. W., Guinane, C. M., Ross, R. P., Hill, C., & Cotter, P. D. (2016). Bacteriocin production: a relatively unharnessed probiotic trait? F1000Research, 5.
• Hernández, O., Ruiz-Matute, A. I., Olano, A., Moreno, F. J., & Sanz, M. L. (2009). Comparison of fractionation techniques to obtain prebiotic galactooligosaccharides. International Dairy Journal, 19(9), 531–536.
• Hutkins, R. W., Krumbeck, J. A., Bindels, L. B., Cani, P. D., Fahey Jr, G., Goh, Y. J., Hamaker, B., Martens, E. C., Mills, D. A., & Rastal, R. A. (2016). Prebiotics: why definitions matter. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 37, 1–7.
• Ishibashi, N., & Yamazaki, S. (2001). Probiotics and safety. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(2), 465s-470s.
• Isolauri, E. (2001). Probiotics in human disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(6), 1142S-1146S.
• Jebur, M. S. (2010). Therapeutic efficacy of Lactobacillus acidophilus against bacterial isolates from burn wounds. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, 2(12), 586.
• Ji, E.-S., Park, N.-H., & Oh, D.-K. (2005). Galacto-oligosaccharide production by a thermostable recombinant β-galactosidase from Thermotoga maritima. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 21(5), 759–764.
• Joint, F. A. O. (2002). WHO working group report on drafting guidelines for the evaluation of probiotics in food. London, Ontario, Canada, 30.
• Jong, W. Y., & Seung, K. S. (1993). The production of high-content fructo-oligosaccharides from sucrose by the mixed-enzyme system of fructosyltransferase and glucose oxidase. Biotechnology Letters, 15(6), 573–576.
• Kalliomäki, M., Salminen, S., Poussa, T., & Isolauri, E. (2007). Probiotics during the first 7 years of life: a cumulative risk reduction of eczema in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 119(4), 1019.
• Kano, M., MASUOKA, N., Kaga, C., SUGIMOTO, S., IIZUKA, R., MANABE, K., SONE, T., OEDA, K., NONAKA, C., & MIYAZAKI, K. (2013). Consecutive intake of fermented milk containing Bifidobacterium breve strain Yakult and galacto-oligosaccharides benefits skin condition in healthy adult women. Bioscience of Microbiota, Food and Health, 32(1), 33–39.
• Kimoto-Nira, H., Aoki, R., Sasaki, K., Suzuki, C., & Mizumachi, K. (2012). Oral intake of heat-killed cells of Lactococcus lactis strain H61 promotes skin health in women. Journal of Nutritional Science, 1.
• Klaenhammer, T. R., Kleerebezem, M., Kopp, M. V., & Rescigno, M. (2012). The impact of probiotics and prebiotics on the immune system. Nature Reviews Immunology, 12(10), 728.
• Kotz, C. M., Furne, J. K., Savaiano, D. A., & Levitt, M. D. (1994). Factors affecting the ability of a high β-galactosidase yogurt to enhance lactose absorption. Journal of Dairy Science, 77(12), 3538–3544.
• Laparra, J. M., & Sanz, Y. (2010). Interactions of gut microbiota with functional food components and nutraceuticals. Pharmacological Research, 61(3), 219–225.
• Lee, D. E., Huh, C.-S., Ra, J., Choi, I.-D., Jeong, J.-W., Kim, S.-H., Ryu, J. H., Seo, Y. K., Koh, J. S., & Lee, J.-H. (2015). Clinical evidence of effects of Lactobacillus plantarum HY7714 on skin aging: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled study. J Microbiol Biotechnol, 25(12), 2160–2168.
• Lee, J. B., Suk, J., & Kang, S. M. (2018). Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus KCTC 5033 on the Appearance of Facial Skin due to the Ingestion of Probiotics and Paraprobiotics. Journal of Investigative Cosmetology, 14, 287–296.
• Lee, J., Seto, D., & Bielory, L. (2008). Meta-analysis of clinical trials of probiotics for prevention and treatment of pediatric atopic dermatitis. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 121(1), 116–121.
• Lenoir-Wijnkoop, I., Sanders, M. E., Cabana, M. D., Caglar, E., Corthier, G., Rayes, N., Sherman, P. M., Timmerman, H. M., Vaneechoutte, M., & Van Loo, J. (2007). Probiotic and prebiotic influence beyond the intestinal tract. Nutrition Reviews, 65(11), 469–489.
• Lilly, D. M., & Stillwell, R. H. (1965). Probiotics: growth-promoting factors produced by microorganisms. Science, 147(3659), 747–748.
• Lin, T.-J., & Lee, Y.-C. (2008). High-content fructooligosaccharides production using two immobilized microorganisms in an internal-loop airlift bioreactor. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Chemical Engineers, 39(3), 211–217.
• Livermore, D. M. (2002). Multiple mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: our worst nightmare? Clinical Infectious Diseases, 34(5), 634–640.
• Lolou, V., & Panayiotidis, M. I. (2019). Functional Role of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Skin Health and Disease. Fermentation, 5(2), 41.
• Maiorano, A. E., Piccoli, R. M., Da Silva, E. S., & de Andrade Rodrigues, M. F. (2008). Microbial production of fructosyltransferases for synthesis of pre-biotics. Biotechnology Letters, 30(11), 1867.
• Markowiak, P., & Śliżewska, K. (2017). Effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on human health. Nutrients, 9(9), 1021.
• McGovern, P. E., Zhang, J., Tang, J., Zhang, Z., Hall, G. R., Moreau, R. A., Nuñez, A., Butrym, E. D., Richards, M. P., & Wang, C. (2004). Fermented beverages of pre-and proto-historic China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(51), 17593–17598.
• Meyer, D., & Stasse-Wolthuis, M. (2009). The bifidogenic effect of inulin and oligofructose and its consequences for gut health. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63(11), 1277.
• Mohkam, M., Nezafat, N., Berenjian, A., Negahdaripour, M., Behfar, A., & Ghasemi, Y. (2016). Role of bacillus genus in the production of value-added compounds. In Bacilli and Agrobiotechnology (pp. 1–33). Springer.
• Mokoena, M. P. (2017). Lactic acid bacteria and their bacteriocins: Classification, biosynthesis and applications against uropathogens: A mini-review. Molecules, 22(8), 1255.
• Monsan, P., & Paul, F. (1995). Enzymatic synthesis of oligosaccharides. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 16(2–3), 187–192.
• Mori, N., Kano, M., Masuoka, N., Konno, T., Suzuki, Y., Miyazaki, K., & Ueki, Y. (2016). Effect of probiotic and prebiotic fermented milk on skin and intestinal conditions in healthy young female students. Bioscience of Microbiota, Food and Health, 2015–2022.
• Mussatto, S. I., Aguilar, C. N., Rodrigues, L. R., & Teixeira, J. A. (2009). Fructooligosaccharides and β-fructofuranosidase production by Aspergillus japonicus immobilized on lignocellulosic materials. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 59(1–3), 76–81.
• Nishizawa, K., Nakajima, M., & Nabetani, H. (2001). Kinetic study on transfructosylation by b-fructofuranosidase from Aspergillus niger ATCC 20611 and availability of a membrane reactor for fructooligosaccharide production. Food Science and Technology Research, 7(1), 39–44.
• Nogueira, J. C. R., & Gonçalves, M. da C. R. (2011). Probiotics in allergic rhinitis. Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, 77(1), 129–134.
• Odamaki, T., Iwabuchi, N., & Xiao, J. (2011). Effects and Mechanisms of Probiotics on the Prevention and Treatment of Allergic Rhinitis. Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bifidobacteria: Current Progress in Advanced Research, 239–251.
• Ohland, C. L., & MacNaughton, W. K. (2010). Probiotic bacteria and intestinal epithelial barrier function. American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 298(6), G807–G819.
• Ozen, M., & Dinleyici, E. C. (2015). The history of probiotics: the untold story. Beneficial Microbes, 6(2), 159–165.
• Palcic, M. M. (1999). Biocatalytic synthesis of oligosaccharides. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 10(6), 616–624.
• Pandey, K. R., Naik, S. R., & Vakil, B. V. (2015). Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics-a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(12), 7577–7587.
• Panesar, P. S., Kumari, S., & Panesar, R. (2013). Biotechnological approaches for the production of prebiotics and their potential applications. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 33(4), 345–364.
• Peng, L., He, Z., Chen, W., Holzman, I. R., & Lin, J. (2007). Effects of butyrate on intestinal barrier function in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model of intestinal barrier. Pediatric Research, 61(1), 37.
• Peral, M. C., Huaman Martinez, M. A., & Valdez, J. C. (2009). Bacteriotherapy with Lactobacillus plantarum in burns. International Wound Journal, 6(1), 73–81.
• Porro, D., Sauer, M., Branduardi, P., & Mattanovich, D. (2005). Recombinant protein production in yeasts. Molecular Biotechnology, 31(3), 245–259.
• Prata, M. B., Mussatto, S. I., Rodrigues, L. R., & Teixeira, J. A. (2010). Fructooligosaccharide production by Penicillium expansum. Biotechnology Letters, 32(6), 837–840.
• Ríos-Covián, D., Ruas-Madiedo, P., Margolles, A., Gueimonde, M., de los Reyes-Gavilán, C. G., & Salazar, N. (2016). Intestinal short chain fatty acids and their link with diet and human health. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 185.
• Rivière, A., Selak, M., Lantin, D., Leroy, F., & De Vuyst, L. (2016). Bifidobacteria and butyrate-producing colon bacteria: importance and strategies for their stimulation in the human gut. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 979.
• Rosenfeldt, V., Benfeldt, E., Valerius, N. H., Pærregaard, A., & Michaelsen, K. F. (2004). Effect of probiotics on gastrointestinal symptoms and small intestinal permeability in children with atopic dermatitis. The Journal of Pediatrics, 145(5), 612–616.
• Rowland, I., Gibson, G., Heinken, A., Scott, K., Swann, J., Thiele, I., & Tuohy, K. (2018). Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food components. European Journal of Nutrition, 57(1), 1–24.
• Sanders, M. E., Merenstein, D. J., Reid, G., Gibson, G. R., & Rastall, R. A. (2019). Probiotics and prebiotics in intestinal health and disease: from biology to the clinic. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 1–12.
• Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2004). Production of fructo-oligosaccharides by fructosyl transferase from Aspergillus oryzae CFR 202 and Aureobasidium pullulans CFR 77. Process Biochemistry, 39(6), 755–760.
• Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2005). Recent trends in the microbial production, analysis and application of fructooligosaccharides. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 16(10), 442–457.
• Santivarangkna, C., Kulozik, U., & Foerst, P. (2008). Inactivation mechanisms of lactic acid starter cultures preserved by drying processes. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 105(1), 1–13.
• Scholz-Ahrens, K. E., Adolphi, B., Rochat, F., Barclay, D. V, de Vrese, M., Açil, Y., & Schrezenmeir, J. (2016). Effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on mineral metabolism in ovariectomized rats—impact of bacterial mass, intestinal absorptive area and reduction of bone turn-over. NFS Journal, 3, 41–50.
• Sheu, D., Duan, K., Cheng, C., Bi, J., & Chen, J. (2002). Continuous Production of High‐Content Fructooligosaccharides by a Complex Cell System. Biotechnology Progress, 18(6), 1282–1286.
• Shoaf, K., Mulvey, G. L., Armstrong, G. D., & Hutkins, R. W. (2006). Prebiotic galactooligosaccharides reduce adherence of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli to tissue culture cells. Infection and Immunity, 74(12), 6920–6928.
• Sicard, D., & Legras, J.-L. (2011). Bread, beer and wine: yeast domestication in the Saccharomyces sensu stricto complex. Comptes Rendus Biologies, 334(3), 229–236.
• Suk, J., Park, J., & Kang, S. (2018). Effects of Lactobacillus reuteri Intake to Facial Skin Condition of Women. Journal of the Korean Society of Cosmetology, 24(4), 661–670.
• Taylor, A. L., Dunstan, J. A., & Prescott, S. L. (2007). Probiotic supplementation for the first 6 months of life fails to reduce the risk of atopic dermatitis and increases the risk of allergen sensitization in high-risk children: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 119(1), 184–191.
• Terpe, K. (2006). Overview of bacterial expression systems for heterologous protein production: from molecular and biochemical fundamentals to commercial systems. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 72(2), 211.
• van Baarlen, P., Wells, J. M., & Kleerebezem, M. (2013). Regulation of intestinal homeostasis and immunity with probiotic lactobacilli. Trends in Immunology, 34(5), 208–215.
• Vandenplas, Y., Zakharova, I., & Dmitrieva, Y. (2015). Oligosaccharides in infant formula: more evidence to validate the role of prebiotics. British Journal of Nutrition, 113(9), 1339–1344.
• Varzakas, T., Kandylis, P., Dimitrellou, D., Salamoura, C., Zakynthinos, G., & Proestos, C. (2018). Innovative and fortified food: Probiotics, prebiotics, gmos, and superfood. In Preparation and Processing of Religious and Cultural Foods (pp. 67–129). Elsevier.
• Vergin, F. (1954). Anti-und Probiotica. Hipokrates, 25, 116–119.
• Wagner, R. D., Warner, T., Roberts, L., Farmer, J., & Balish, E. (1997). Colonization of congenitally immunodeficient mice with probiotic bacteria. Infection and Immunity, 65(8), 3345–3351.
• Wan, L. Y. M., Chen, Z. J., Shah, N. P., & El-Nezami, H. (2016). Modulation of intestinal epithelial defense responses by probiotic bacteria. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(16), 2628–2641.
• Wan, M. L. Y., Ling, K. H., El-Nezami, H., & Wang, M. F. (2018). Influence of functional food components on gut health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 59(12), 1927–1936. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1433629
• Watanabe, J., Sasajima, N., Aramaki, A., & Sonoyama, K. (2008). Consumption of fructo-oligosaccharide reduces 2, 4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity in mice. British Journal of Nutrition, 100(2), 339–346.
• Weijers, C. A. G. M., Franssen, M. C. R., & Visser, G. M. (2008). Glycosyltransferase-catalyzed synthesis of bioactive oligosaccharides. Biotechnology Advances, 26(5), 436–456.
• Weise, C., Zhu, Y., Ernst, D., Kühl, A. A., & Worm, M. (2011). Oral administration of Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 prevents allergen‐induced dermatitis in mice. Experimental Dermatology, 20(10), 805–809.
• Weston, S., Halbert, A., Richmond, P., & Prescott, S. L. (2005). Effects of probiotics on atopic dermatitis: a randomised controlled trial. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(9), 892–897.
• Yin, J., Li, G., Ren, X., & Herrler, G. (2007). Select what you need: a comparative evaluation of the advantages and limitations of frequently used expression systems for foreign genes. Journal of Biotechnology, 127(3), 335–347.
• Yoon, S.-H., Mukerjea, R., & Robyt, J. F. (2003). Specificity of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in removing carbohydrates by fermentation. Carbohydrate Research, 338(10), 1127–1132.
• Yun, J. W. (1996). Fructooligosaccharides—occurrence, preparation, and application. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 19(2), 107–117.
• Yun, J. W., Lee, M. G., & Song, S. K. (1994). Batch production of high-content fructo-oligosaccharides from sucrose by the mixed-enzyme system of β-fructofuranosidase and glucose oxidase. Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 77(2), 159–163.