Research Article
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Scientific and Theological Evaluation of Religious Belief: Neurotheology

Year 2021, Volume: 25 Issue: 2, 547 - 560, 15.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.18505/cuid.884089

Abstract

A great deal of research has been done on the origin of belief and its effects on human beings. In recent years, these researches are not only limited to the theological field, but also continued by various branches of science. Scientific disciplines that investigate different dimensions of belief have made some explanations about the origins of belief under titles such as cognitive science, mental science, evolutionary theory and genetics, but these results have been someti-mes discussed and criticized. Studies on this subject have not yet achieved a general consis-tency so far. In the last century, there has been a great increase in the number of such studies. Before the 1970s, there was an understanding that tried to explain the issue from an evolutio-nary perspective. The interest in the source of human belief started especially in the field of biology and has been supported by many systematic scientific studies. These types of studies tried to understand and explain the biological origins of belief, but did not go beyond labora-tory experiences. These studies associated belief with certain diseases, attempted to explain biologically different versions of belief, tried to explain the relationship between brain mobi-lity and religious experience, and searched for a separate God Gene and God Field. This article focuses on the psychological basis of the subject, and then the biological basis of the subject. Studies on consciousness, unconsciousness, death, diseases, and many psychological disorders handled in different ways the relation with belief. Such basic human processes are tried to be explained in relation to many areas such as health, spirituality and culture. Socio-biology, evo-lutionary psychology, and contemporary cognitive sciences have carried out a series of studies on this subject, especially looking for the foundations of belief. Since the 1970s, there have been some attempts in biology, especially depending on the developments in science and tech-nology. These studies mostly claim that “the ability to believe” is innate in humans and is parti-ally supported by some scientific discussions. Scientists who seek the source of belief directly in biology follow the hypothesis that the temporal lobe of the brain is the source of religious and mystical experience. Neurologists have focused on the prefrontal cortex of the brain and suggested that this region of the brain may be related to religion and belief. These studies are the continuation of other research that started earlier and searched for belief, spirituality, and God in a certain region of the brain. In these studies, conceptualizations such as “the God spot” and “the God module” have been made instead of the concept of the “God gene.” As a result, studies on religion and brain will increasingly come to the fore. Studies on this subject have opened a new door in terms of showing the relationship between religious belief, attitudes and behaviors and the brain. However, more studies are needed in this area in order to understand more accurately and fully the relationship between religious beliefs or experiences and physi-cal processes because most of the studies on this subject have focused on Christians and Budd-hists. Although a serious relationship has not been established between religion and biology until now, it is likely that these issues will come to the fore more frequently from now on. These studies which investigate whether there is a relationship between believing and the brain are called neurotheology. In this study, the developmental process of neurotheology as a science and the studies in this field were examined by literature and document review. Studies conducted in the last hundred years were systematically examined and the current situation was discussed.

References

  • Alister Hardy. The Spiritual Nature of Man: Study of Contemporary Religious Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
  • Allport, Gordon W. The Individual and His Religion-A Psychological Interpretation. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962.
  • Azari, Nina P. - Slors, Marc. “From Brain Imaging Religious Experience to Explaining Religion: A Critique”. Archiv für Religionspsychologie 29 (2007), 67-86. https://doi.org/10.1163/008467207X188630
  • Azari, Nina P. “Neuroimaging Studies of Religious Experience: A Critical Review”. Where God and Science Meet. ed. Patrick McMamara. 33-54. Westpost: Praeger Publishers, 2006.
  • Barrett, Nathaniel F. “Principles of Neurotheology”. Ars Disputandi 11 (2011), 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15665399.2011.10820062
  • Bellous, Joyce E. vd. “A Child’s Concept of God”. Children’s Spirituality: Christian Perspectives, Research, and Application. ed. Donald Ratcliff. 201-218. Or: Cascade Books, 2004.
  • Berger, Peter L. “Secularism in Retreat”. National Interest (Winter 1996), 3-12.
  • Boyatzis, Chris J. “Religious and Spiritual Development in Childhood”. Handbook of the Psycho-logy of Religion and Spirituality. ed. Raymond F. Paloutzian - Crystal L. Park. 123-143. London: The Guilford Press, 2005.
  • Boyer, Pascal. “Religious Thought and Behaviour as By-Products of Brain Function”. Trends in Cognitive Science 7/3 (2003), 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00031-7
  • Çarkoğlu, Ali - Kalaycıoğlu, Ersin. “Türkiye’de Dindarlık: Uluslararası Bir Karşılaştırma”. Erişim 6 Şubat 2021. http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/14014/1/Rapor_Dindarl%C4%B1k.pdf
  • D'Aquili, Eugene G. “The Neurobiological Bases of Myth and Concepts of Deity”. Zygon Journal of Religion and Science 13/4 (1978), 257-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.1978.tb00338.x
  • Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  • Forliti, John E. - Benson, Peter L. “Young Adolescents: A National Study”. Religious Education 81/2 (1986), 199-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034408600810206
  • Freud, Sigmund, “Some Reflections on Schoolboy Psychology”. The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, London: Hogarth Press and Institute for Psychoanalysis, 1914.
  • Freud, Sigmund. Totem and Taboo. London: Hogarth Press, 1962
  • Gottlieb, Gilbert. “Probabilistic Epigenesis”. Developmental Science 10/1 (2007), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 7687.2007.00556.x
  • Grangvist, Pehr. “Religiousness and Perceived Childhood Attachment: On the Question of Com-pensation or Correspondence”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37 (1998), 350-367. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387533
  • Hamer, Dean. The God Gene. New York: Anchor Books, 2005.
  • Heller, David. The Children’s God. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
  • Hood, Ralph W. vd. The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach. New York: The Guil-ford Press, 2009.
  • Hyde, Kenneth E. Religion in Childhood & Adolescence-A Comprehensive Review of the Rese-arch. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education Press, 1990.
  • Klemm, William R. “Whither Neurotheology?”. Religions 10/11 (2019), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10110634
  • Koenig, Harold G. Aging and God: Spiritual Pathways to Mental Health in Midlife and Later Years. New York: The Haworth Pastoral Press, 1994.
  • Konda. “Hayat Tarzları”. Erişim 6 Şubat 2021. https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/tr/HayatTarzlari2018/#7thPage/1
  • Köse, Ali. Freud ve Din. İstanbul: İz Yay., 2019.
  • Köylü, Mustafa - Oruç, Cemil. Çocukluk Dönemi Din Eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yay., 2020.
  • Langone, John. “In Search of the 'God Gene'”. The New York Times (Nov. 2) 2004.
  • Mehmedoğlu, Ali Ulvi. İnanç Psikolojisine Giriş. İstanbul: Çamlıca Yay., 2013.
  • Newberg, Andrew B. “Transformation of Brain Structure and Spiritual Experience”. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality. ed. L.J. Miller. 489-499. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  • Oser, Fritz K. vd. “Religious and Spiritual Development throughout the Life Span”. Handbook of Child Psychology- Volume I. Theoretical Models of Human Development. ed. R.M. Ler-ner. 942-998. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
  • Persinger, Michael A. - Makarec, Katherine. “Temporal Lobe Epileptic Signs and Correlative Behaviors Displayed by Normal Populations”. The Journal of General Psychology 114/2 (1987), 179-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1987.9711068
  • Persinger, Michael A. “Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Func-tion: A General Hypothesis”. Perceptual and Motor Skills 57 (1983), 1255-1262. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1983.57.3f.1255
  • Persinger, Michael A. Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs. Westport: Praeger, 1987.
  • Rizzuto, Ana-Maria. The Birth of the Living God-A Psychoanalytic Study. Chicago: The Univer-sity of Chicago Press, 1979.
  • Smith, Christian - Denton, Melinda Lundquist. Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  • Spinella, Marcello - Wain, Omar. “The Neural Substrates of Moral, Religious, and Paranormal Beliefs”. Skeptical Inquirer 30/5 (2006), 117-135.
  • Waller, Niels G. vd. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Religious Interests, Attitudes, and Values: A Study of Twins Reared Apart and Together”. Psychological Science 1/2 (1990), 138-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00083.x
  • Wulff, David M. Psychology of Religion-Classic and Contemporary Views. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.
  • Yazır, Elmalılı M. Hamdi. Hak Dini Kur’an Dili. İstanbul: Erkam Matbaacılık, 1992.
  • Yocum, Russell. “Spiritual Development and Education: A Sequential Mixed-Methods Appro-ach”. Religion & Education 41/1 (2014), 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2012.716351
  • Zinnbauer, Brian J. - Pargament, Kenneth I. “Religiousness and Spiritually”. Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. ed. R.F. Paloutzian - C.L. Park. 21-42. London: The Guilford Press, 2005.
  • Zinnbauer, Brian J. - Pargament, Kenneth I. “Working with the Sacred: Four Approaches to Religious and Spiritual Issues in Counseling”. Journal of Counseling and Development 78/2 (2000), 162-171. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x

Dini İnancın Temellerinin Bilimsel ve Teolojik Değerlendirmesi: Nöroteoloji

Year 2021, Volume: 25 Issue: 2, 547 - 560, 15.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.18505/cuid.884089

Abstract

İnancın kökeni ve insanlar üzerindeki etkileri konusunda pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. Son yıllarda bu araştırmalar sadece teolojik alanla sınırlı kalmamış, çeşitli bilim dalları tarafından da sürdürülmüştür. İnancın farklı boyutlarını araştıran bilimsel disiplinler, inancın kökenleri hakkında bilişsel bilim, zihinsel bilim, evrim teorisi ve genetik gibi başlıklar altında açıklamalar yapmış, ancak bu sonuçlar zaman zaman tartışılmış ve eleştirilmiştir. Bu konudaki çalışmalar şu ana kadar genel bir tutarlılığa kavuşmuş değildir. Son yüzyılda bu tür çalışmaların sayısında da büyük bir artış olmuştur. 1970'lerden önce konuyu evrimsel açıdan açıklamaya çalışan bir bakış açısı söz konusuydu. İnsanlarda inancın kaynağı konusunda özellikle biyoloji alanında başlayan bu ilgi, konuyla ilgili daha sistematik bilimsel çalışmalarla desteklenmiştir. Bunlar, çoğu laboratuvar araştırmalarının ötesine geçemeyen inancın biyolojik kökenlerini anlamaya ve açıklamaya çalışan çalışmalardır. Bu çalışmalar, inancı belirli hastalıklarla ilişkilendirme, inancın biyolojik olarak farklı versiyonlarını açıklamaya çalışma, beyin aktiviteleri ile dini deneyim arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklamaya çalışma ve ayrı bir Tanrı Geni ve Tanrı Alanı arayışı olarak gelişmiştir. Bu makale konunun psikolojik ve biyolojik temeline odaklanmaktadır. Özellikle son yıllarda gündemimize daha fazla giren bilinç, ölüm, hastalıklar ve birçok psikolojik rahatsızlıkla ilgili çalışmalar bunların inançla ilişkisini farklı şekillerde ele almıştır. Bu tür temel insani süreçleri sağlık, maneviyat ve kültür gibi birçok alanla ilişkilendiren çalışmalar yapılmaktadır. Sosyo-biyoloji, evrimsel psikoloji ve çağdaş bilişsel bilimler bu konuda özellikle inancın temellerini araştırarak bir dizi çalışma yapmışlardır. 1970'li yıllardan itibaren özellikle bilim ve teknolojideki gelişmelere bağlı olarak biyolojide bazı girişimler olmuştur. Bu çalışmalar çoğunlukla “inanma yeteneğinin” insanlarda doğuştan olduğunu iddia etmekte ve bazı bilimsel tartışmalarla kısmen desteklenmektedir. İnancın kaynağını doğrudan biyolojide arayan bilim adamları, beynin temporal lobunun dini ve mistik deneyimin kaynağı olduğu hipotezini takip ederler. Özellikle nörologlar beynin prefrontal korteksine odaklanırlar ve beynin bu bölgesinin din ve inançla ilgili olabileceğini öne sürerler. Daha önce başlayan ve beynin bir bölgesinde inanç, maneviyat ve Tanrı'yı arayan diğer araştırmaların devamı niteliğindeki bu çalışmalarda “Tanrı geni” kavramı yerine “Tanrı noktası” ve “Tanrı modülü” gibi kavramsallaştırmalar yaparlar. Sonuç olarak, din ve beyin üzerine yapılan çalışmalar giderek ön plana çıkacaktır. Bu konuda yapılan çalışmalar, dini inanç, tutum ve davranışlar ile beyin arasındaki ilişkiyi göstermesi açısından yeni bir kapı açmıştır. Ancak, dini inançlar veya deneyimler ile fiziksel süreç arasındaki ilişkiyi daha doğru ve tam olarak anlamak için bu alanda daha fazla çalışmaya ihtiyaç vardır. Bunun nedeni, bu konudaki çalışmaların çoğunun Hıristiyanlar ve Budistler üzerinde yoğunlaşmış olmasıdır. Din ve biyoloji arasında şimdiye kadar ciddi bir ilişki kurulmamış olsa da, bundan sonra bu konuların daha sık gündeme gelmesi muhtemeldir. Günümüze kadar gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmalar, nöroteolojinin gelişmesine katkı sağlamıştır. Söz konusu çalışmalar bazı genlerin Tanrı ile ilişkili olduğu temel hipotezlerinden hareket etmektedir. Bu çalışmalarda sözü edilen beyin aktiviteleri tıbbi teknoloji yardımıyla gözlenmiş, nihayet bu aktiviteler, beyinde inançla ilgili bir bölgenin olduğu şeklinde yorumlanmıştır. Bu alan büyük oranda teolojinin değil modern bilimsel disiplinlerin bir çalışma alanı olarak gelişmiştir. Bu çalışmalar hem bilim dünyasında hem de teolojinin eleştirilerini de üzerine çekmiş durumdadır. Bu çalışmada, nöroteolojinin bir bilim olarak gelişim süreci ve bu alanda yapılan çalışmalar literatür tarama ve doküman incelemesiyle ele alınmıştır. Bu bağlamda makalede, son yüz yılda nöroteoloji alanında yapılan çalışmalar bir sistematik içerisinde incelenerek hâlihazırdaki durum değerlendirilmiştir.

References

  • Alister Hardy. The Spiritual Nature of Man: Study of Contemporary Religious Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
  • Allport, Gordon W. The Individual and His Religion-A Psychological Interpretation. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962.
  • Azari, Nina P. - Slors, Marc. “From Brain Imaging Religious Experience to Explaining Religion: A Critique”. Archiv für Religionspsychologie 29 (2007), 67-86. https://doi.org/10.1163/008467207X188630
  • Azari, Nina P. “Neuroimaging Studies of Religious Experience: A Critical Review”. Where God and Science Meet. ed. Patrick McMamara. 33-54. Westpost: Praeger Publishers, 2006.
  • Barrett, Nathaniel F. “Principles of Neurotheology”. Ars Disputandi 11 (2011), 133-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15665399.2011.10820062
  • Bellous, Joyce E. vd. “A Child’s Concept of God”. Children’s Spirituality: Christian Perspectives, Research, and Application. ed. Donald Ratcliff. 201-218. Or: Cascade Books, 2004.
  • Berger, Peter L. “Secularism in Retreat”. National Interest (Winter 1996), 3-12.
  • Boyatzis, Chris J. “Religious and Spiritual Development in Childhood”. Handbook of the Psycho-logy of Religion and Spirituality. ed. Raymond F. Paloutzian - Crystal L. Park. 123-143. London: The Guilford Press, 2005.
  • Boyer, Pascal. “Religious Thought and Behaviour as By-Products of Brain Function”. Trends in Cognitive Science 7/3 (2003), 119-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00031-7
  • Çarkoğlu, Ali - Kalaycıoğlu, Ersin. “Türkiye’de Dindarlık: Uluslararası Bir Karşılaştırma”. Erişim 6 Şubat 2021. http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/14014/1/Rapor_Dindarl%C4%B1k.pdf
  • D'Aquili, Eugene G. “The Neurobiological Bases of Myth and Concepts of Deity”. Zygon Journal of Religion and Science 13/4 (1978), 257-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9744.1978.tb00338.x
  • Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  • Forliti, John E. - Benson, Peter L. “Young Adolescents: A National Study”. Religious Education 81/2 (1986), 199-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034408600810206
  • Freud, Sigmund, “Some Reflections on Schoolboy Psychology”. The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, London: Hogarth Press and Institute for Psychoanalysis, 1914.
  • Freud, Sigmund. Totem and Taboo. London: Hogarth Press, 1962
  • Gottlieb, Gilbert. “Probabilistic Epigenesis”. Developmental Science 10/1 (2007), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 7687.2007.00556.x
  • Grangvist, Pehr. “Religiousness and Perceived Childhood Attachment: On the Question of Com-pensation or Correspondence”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37 (1998), 350-367. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387533
  • Hamer, Dean. The God Gene. New York: Anchor Books, 2005.
  • Heller, David. The Children’s God. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
  • Hood, Ralph W. vd. The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach. New York: The Guil-ford Press, 2009.
  • Hyde, Kenneth E. Religion in Childhood & Adolescence-A Comprehensive Review of the Rese-arch. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education Press, 1990.
  • Klemm, William R. “Whither Neurotheology?”. Religions 10/11 (2019), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10110634
  • Koenig, Harold G. Aging and God: Spiritual Pathways to Mental Health in Midlife and Later Years. New York: The Haworth Pastoral Press, 1994.
  • Konda. “Hayat Tarzları”. Erişim 6 Şubat 2021. https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/tr/HayatTarzlari2018/#7thPage/1
  • Köse, Ali. Freud ve Din. İstanbul: İz Yay., 2019.
  • Köylü, Mustafa - Oruç, Cemil. Çocukluk Dönemi Din Eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yay., 2020.
  • Langone, John. “In Search of the 'God Gene'”. The New York Times (Nov. 2) 2004.
  • Mehmedoğlu, Ali Ulvi. İnanç Psikolojisine Giriş. İstanbul: Çamlıca Yay., 2013.
  • Newberg, Andrew B. “Transformation of Brain Structure and Spiritual Experience”. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality. ed. L.J. Miller. 489-499. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  • Oser, Fritz K. vd. “Religious and Spiritual Development throughout the Life Span”. Handbook of Child Psychology- Volume I. Theoretical Models of Human Development. ed. R.M. Ler-ner. 942-998. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
  • Persinger, Michael A. - Makarec, Katherine. “Temporal Lobe Epileptic Signs and Correlative Behaviors Displayed by Normal Populations”. The Journal of General Psychology 114/2 (1987), 179-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1987.9711068
  • Persinger, Michael A. “Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Func-tion: A General Hypothesis”. Perceptual and Motor Skills 57 (1983), 1255-1262. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1983.57.3f.1255
  • Persinger, Michael A. Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs. Westport: Praeger, 1987.
  • Rizzuto, Ana-Maria. The Birth of the Living God-A Psychoanalytic Study. Chicago: The Univer-sity of Chicago Press, 1979.
  • Smith, Christian - Denton, Melinda Lundquist. Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  • Spinella, Marcello - Wain, Omar. “The Neural Substrates of Moral, Religious, and Paranormal Beliefs”. Skeptical Inquirer 30/5 (2006), 117-135.
  • Waller, Niels G. vd. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Religious Interests, Attitudes, and Values: A Study of Twins Reared Apart and Together”. Psychological Science 1/2 (1990), 138-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00083.x
  • Wulff, David M. Psychology of Religion-Classic and Contemporary Views. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.
  • Yazır, Elmalılı M. Hamdi. Hak Dini Kur’an Dili. İstanbul: Erkam Matbaacılık, 1992.
  • Yocum, Russell. “Spiritual Development and Education: A Sequential Mixed-Methods Appro-ach”. Religion & Education 41/1 (2014), 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2012.716351
  • Zinnbauer, Brian J. - Pargament, Kenneth I. “Religiousness and Spiritually”. Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. ed. R.F. Paloutzian - C.L. Park. 21-42. London: The Guilford Press, 2005.
  • Zinnbauer, Brian J. - Pargament, Kenneth I. “Working with the Sacred: Four Approaches to Religious and Spiritual Issues in Counseling”. Journal of Counseling and Development 78/2 (2000), 162-171. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x
There are 42 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Religious Studies
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Mustafa Köylü 0000-0002-3754-0751

Cemil Oruç 0000-0002-9870-8597

Publication Date December 15, 2021
Submission Date February 21, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 25 Issue: 2

Cite

ISNAD Köylü, Mustafa - Oruç, Cemil. “Dini İnancın Temellerinin Bilimsel Ve Teolojik Değerlendirmesi: Nöroteoloji”. Cumhuriyet İlahiyat Dergisi 25/2 (December 2021), 547-560. https://doi.org/10.18505/cuid.884089.