Characterization of flax genetic resources in Türkiye through variance analysis of antioxidant, phenolic compound and fatty acid contents

Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 3, 663 - 673, 29.09.2024

Yusuf Arslan , Mustafa Yaşar , Muhittin Bağcı , Müttalip Gündoğdu , Berfin İşler , Sefa Ünal

https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2024.3.20

Abstract

This study was conducted in 2021 using seeds from 10 different flax cultivars (Sarı 85, Cill 1351, Cill 1370, Cill 1400, Cill 1412, Larnaka, Milas, Newtürk, and Dilman) in the Ankara ecology. The study investigated the oil content, protein content, fatty acid composition, antioxidant capacities, and specific phenolic compound contents of these seeds. Correlations among the bioactive compound contents of flax seeds were elucidated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Heatmap analysis. As a result of the research, statistically significant differences were found among the seed properties of the varieties. According to the PCA method, the correlation among fatty acids was determined as 71.2% (PC1+PC2), while the correlation between phenolic compounds and antioxidants was determined as 60.4% (PC1+PC2). In the study, the highest oil content was obtained in the Newtürk variety with 35.3%, while the lowest oil content was obtained in the Larnaka variety with 32.2%. The highest α-linolenic acid (C18:3) ratio of 53.9% was detected in the Newtürk variety, while the lowest α-linolenic acid (C18:3) ratio of 46.8% was obtained from the Cill1423 variety. Ferulic (Cill 1351: 18.51 µg/g) and protocatechuic (Cill 1423: 20.83 µg/g) acids were found to be the most abundant compounds in flax seeds. In the research, it was determined that the Cill 1351 (4.08 mg trolox/g) and Dilman (4.16 mg trolox/g) varieties had higher antioxidant capacities than the other varieties.

Keywords

Flax, Antioxidant, Phenolic compounds, Fatty acids, Protein

References

• Adolphe, J. L., Whiting, S. J., Juurlink, B. H., Thorpe, L. U., and Alcorn, J. (2010). Health effects with consumption of the flax lignan secoisolariciresinoldiglucoside. British Journal of Nutrition, 103(7), 929-938.
• Balkan, M. (1978). Ham MaddelerdeHızlı Protein Tayini. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gida/issue/6809/91526
• Balter, M. (2009). Clothes make the (Hu) Man. Science. 325 (5946): 1329. doi:10.1126/science.325_1329a. PMID 19745126.
• Beejmohun, V., Fliniaux, O., Grand, É., Lamblin, F., Bensaddek, L., Christen, P., and Mesnard, F. (2007). Microwave‐assisted extraction of the main phenolic compounds in flaxseed. Phytochemical Analysis: An International Journal of Plant Chemical and Biochemical Techniques, 18(4), 275-282.
• Caligiuri, S. P., Aukema, H. M., Ravandi, A., Guzman, R., Dibrov, E., and Pierce, G. N. (2014). Flaxseed consumption reduces blood pressure in patients with hypertension by altering circulating oxylipins via an α-linolenic acid–induced inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase. Hypertension, 64(1), 53-59.
• Cemeroglu, B (2007) Food analysis. Food Technology Society Publication. No. 34,Ankara, Turkey, pp. 168–171.
• Choudhary, S. B., Sharma, H. K., Kumar, A. A., Maruthi, R. T., Mitra, J., Chowdhury, I., and Karmakar, P. G. (2017). SSR and morphological trait based population structure analysis of 130 diverse flax (Linumusitatissimum L.) accessions. ComptesRendusBiologies, 340(2), 65-75.
• Chung, M.W.Y., Lei B., and Li-Chan E.C.Y. (2005). Isolation and structural characterization of the major protein fraction from NorMar flaxseed (Linumusitatissimum L.). Food Chem. 90: 271-279.
• Clark, W. F., and Ogborn, M. (2003). Flaxseed and flaxseed lignans: Effects on the progression and severity of renal failure. In Flax (pp. 226-241). CRC Press.
• Čolovic, D., Berenji, J., Levart, A., Levic, J., Salobir, J., Pezo, L., and Čolovic, R. (2016). Nutritional characteristics of seeds of eighteen linseed (Linumhumille Mill.) cultivars from Serbia. Zemdirbyste-Agriculture, 103(2).
• Dew, T. P., and Williamson, G. (2013). Controlled flax interventions for the improvement of menopausal symptoms and postmenopausal bone health: a systematic review. Menopause, 20(11), 1207-1215.
• Dong L, Zhou HW, Sonego L, Lers A, Lurie, S. (2001). Ethylene involvement in the cold storage disorder of “Flavortop” nectarine. Postharvest Biology and Technology 23: 105-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(01)00106-5
• Dugani, A., Auzzi, A., Naas, F., and Megwez, S. (2008). Effects of the oil and mucilage from flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) on gastric lesions induced by ethanol in rats. Libyan Journal of Medicine, 3(4), 1-5.
• Dupasquier, C. M., Dibrov, E., Kneesh, A. L., Cheung, P. K., Lee, K. G., Alexander, H. K., ... & Pierce, G. N. (2007). Dietary flaxseed inhibits atherosclerosis in the LDL receptor-deficient mouse in part through antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory actions. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 293(4), H2394-H2402.
• FAO, (2020). https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL
• Flaxcouncil, (2022). https://flaxcouncil.ca/
• Flower, G., Fritz, H., Balneaves, L. G., Verma, S., Skidmore, B., Fernandes, R., and Seely, D. (2014). Flax and breast cancer: a systematic review. Integrative cancer therapies, 13(3), 181-192.
• Fu, Y.B. (2011). Genetic evidence for early flax domestication with capsular dehiscence. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 58 (8): 1119–1128. doi:10.1007/s10722-0109650-9. S2CID 22424329.
• Gentleman, R. C., Carey, V. J., Bates, D. M., Bolstad, B., Dettling, M., Dudoit, S., Ellis, B., Gautier, L., Ge, Y., Gentry, J., Hornik, K., Hothorn, T., Huber, W., Lacus, S., Irizarry, R., Leisch, F., Li, C., Maechler, M., Rossini A. J., Sawitzki, G., Smith, C., Smyth, G., Tierney, L., Hanh, J. H. Y., and ZZhang, J. (2004). Bioconductor: open software development for computational biology and bioinformatics. Genome biology, 5(10), 116.
• Goudenhooft, C., Bourmaud, A., and Baley, C. (2018). Conventional or greenhouse cultivation of flax: What influence on the number and quality of flax fibers? Industrial Crops and Products, 123, 111-117.
• Gölükcü, M., Toker, R., Tokgöz, H., Çınar, O. (2016). The effect of harvesting time on seed oil content and fatty acid composition of some lemon and mandarin cultivars grown in Turkey. J Agr Sci 22: 566-575.
• Gündoğdu, M. (2019). Effect of rootstocks on phytochemical properties of apricot fruit. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 43(1), 1-10.
• Gundogdu, M., Berk, S., Yıldız, K., Kaki, B., Tuna, S., Canan, I., and Ercisli, S. (2021). Influence of Foliar Application with Gibberellic Acid on Phenolic and Bioactive Compounds of Strawberry Fruits. Erwerbs-obstbau, 63(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10341-021-00543-z
• Habibollahi, H., Noormohammadi, Z., Sheidai, M., and Farahani, F. (2016). SSR and ESTSSR-based population genetic structure of Linum L. (Linaceae) species in Iran. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 63(7), 1127-1138.
• Harper, C. R., Edwards, M. J., DeFilipis, A. P., and Jacobson, T. A. (2006). Flaxseed oil increases the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) fatty acids in humans. The Journal of nutrition, 136(1), 83-87.
• Katar, N., Yaşar, M., Köse, A., & Katar, D. (2023). Determination of Yield and Quality Properties of Different Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) Genotypes in Eskisehir Ecological Conditions. MAS Journal of Applied Sciences, 8(Özel Sayı), 955-964.
• Kaithwas, G., and Majumdar, D. K. (2010). Evaluation of antiulcer and antisecretory potential of Linumusitatissimum fixed oil and possible mechanism of action. Inflammopharmacology, 18, 137-145.
• Kajla, P., Sharma, A., and Sood, D. R. (2015). Flaxseed a potential functional food source. Journal of food science and technology, 52, 1857-1871.
• Kaviarasan, S., Naik, G. H., Gangabhagirathi, R., Anuradha, C. V., and Priyadarsini, K. I. (2007). In vitro studies on antiradical and antioxidant activities of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds. Food Chemistry, 103, 31–37.
• Kosar, M., Kafkas, E., Paydas, S., and Baser, H. C. (2004). Phenolic composition of strawberry genotypes at different maturation stages. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, pp. 1586–1589. DOI: 10.1021/jf035093t.
• Kosiorowska, A., Pietrzyk, S., Pająk, P., and Socha, R. (2022). The effect of the addition of gold flax (Linumusitatissimum L.) and chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of cranberry jams. European Food Research and Technology, 248(11), 2865-2876.
• Kristensen, M., Jensen, M. G., Aarestrup, J., Petersen, K. E., Søndergaard, L., Mikkelsen, M. S., and Astrup, A. (2012). Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type. Nutrition & metabolism, 9(1), 1-8.
• Kvavadze, E., Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., Boaretto, E., Jakeli, N., Matskevich, Z., and Meshveliani, T. (2009). 30,000-year-old wild flax fibers. Science, 325(5946), 13591359.
• Landoni, B., Viruel, J., Gómez, R., Allaby, R. G., Brennan, A. C., Picó, F. X., and PérezBarrales, R. (2020). Microsatellite marker development in the crop wild relative Linumbienne using genome skimming. Applications in plant sciences, 8(5), e11349.
• Mazza, G. (2008). Production, processing and uses of Canadian flax. In First CGNA International Workshop, Temuco, Chile, August (pp. 3-6).
• Nag, S., Mandal, R., and Mitra, J. (2020). Exploration of genetic structure and association mapping for fibre quality traits in global flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) collections utilizing SSRs markers. Plant Gene, 24, 100256.
• Nowak, D. A., Snyder, D. C., Brown, A. J., and Demark-Wahnefried, W. (2007). The effect of flaxseed supplementation on hormonal levels associated with polycystic ovarian syndrome: a case study. Current topics in nutraceutical research, 5(4), 177.
• Omoni, A. O., and Aluko, R. E. (2006). Mechanism of the inhibition of calmodulindependent neuronal nitric oxide synthase by flaxseed protein hydrolysates. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 83, 335-340.
• Oomah, B. D. (2001). Flaxseed as a functional food source. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81(9), 889-894.
• Oomah, B. D., Berekoff, B., Li-Chan, E. C., Mazza, G., Kenaschuk, E. O., and Duguid, S. D. (2007). Cadmium-binding protein components of flaxseed: Influence of cultivar and location. Food chemistry, 100(1), 318-325.
• Pająk, P., Socha, R., Łakoma, P., and Fortuna, T. (2017). Antioxidant properties of apple slices stored in starch-based films. International Journal of Food Properties, 20 (5), https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2016.1203931.
• Pandey, K. B., and Rizvi, S. I. (2009). Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2(5), 270–278 45.
• Pandohee, J. (2022). Alpha-linolenic acid. In Nutraceuticals and Health Care (pp. 279288). Academic Press.
• Pająk, P., Socha, R., Broniek, J., Królikowska, K., and Fortuna, T. (2019). Antioxidant properties, phenolic and mineral composition of germinated chia, golden flax, evening primrose, phacelia and fenugreek. Food chemistry, 275, 69-76.
• Pengilly, N. L. (2003). Traditional food and medicinal uses of, flaxseed. Flax: the genus Linum, 252-267.
• Predieri, S., Ragazzini, P., and Rondelli, R. 2006. Sensory evaluation and peach fruit quality. Acta Hort. 713, 429–434.
• Rabetafika H.N., Van Remoortel V., Danthine S., Paquot M., and Blecker, C. (2011). Flaxseed proteins: food uses and health benefits. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol, 46: 221-228.
• Randhir, R., Lin, Y.-T., and Shetty, K. (2004). Phenolics, their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in dark germinated fenugreek sprouts in response to peptide and phytochemical elicitors. Process Biochemistry, 39(5), 637–646.
• Rodriguez-Leyva, D., Bassett, C. M., McCullough, R., and Pierce, G. N. (2010). The cardiovascular effects of flaxseed and its omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 26(9), 489-496.
• Sargi, S. C., Silva, B. C., Santos, H. M. C., Montanher, P. F., Boeing, J. S., Santos Júnior, O. O., and Visentainer, J. V. (2013). Antioxidant capacity and chemical composition in seeds rich in omega-3: chia, flax, and perilla. Food Science and Technology, 33, 541-548.
• Sauvant, D., Perez, J. M., and Tran, G. (2004). Table of composition and nutritional value of feed materials. Pigs, Poultry, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Rabbits, Horses, Fish. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
• Scalbert, A., Johnson, I. T., and Saltmarsh, M. (2005). Polyphenols: antioxidants and beyond. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 81(1), 215S-217S.
• Simbalista, R. L., Sauerbronn, A. V., Aldrighi, J. M., and Arêas, J. A. (2010). Consumption of a flaxseed-rich food is not more effective than a placebo in alleviating the climacteric symptoms of postmenopausal women. The Journal of nutrition, 140(2), 293-297.
• Singh, K.K., Mridula D. Rehal J, and Barnwal P. (2011). Flaxseed: a potential source of food, feed and fiber. See comment in PubMed Commons below Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 51: 210-222.
• Singh, N., Kumar, R., Kumar, S., Singh, P. K., Yadav, V. K., Ranade, S. A., and Yadav, H. K. (2017). Genetic diversity, population structure and association analysis in linseed (Linumusitatissimum L.). Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 23(1), 207-219.
• Xie, Y., Yan, Z., Niu, Z., Coulter, J. A., Niu, J., Zhang, J., and Wang, L. (2020). Yield, oil content, and fatty acid profile of flax (Linumusitatissimum L.) as affected by phosphorus rate and seeding rate. Industrial Crops and Products, 145, 112087.
• Talebi, S. M., and Matsyura, A. (2021). Genetic structure of some Iranian, new and old worlds Linumusitatissimum L. populations. Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions A: Science, 1-11.
• Tchoumtchoua, J., Mathiron, D., Pontarin, N., Gagneul, D., Van Bohemen, A. I., OtogoN‟nang, E., and Quéro, A. (2019). Phenolic profiling of flax highlights contrasting patterns in winter and spring varieties. Molecules, 24(23), 4303.
• Trandafir, I., Cosmulescu, S., Botu, M., and Nour, V. (2016). Antioxidant activity, and phenolic and mineral contents of the walnut kernel (Juglans regia L.) as a function of the pellicle color. Fruits, 71, pp. 177–174. DOI: 10.1051/fruits/2016006.
• Wang, H., Wang, J., Qiu, C., Ye, Y., Guo, X., Chen, G., and Liu, R. H. (2017). Comparison of phytochemical profiles and health benefits in fiber and oil flaxseeds (Linumusitatissimum L.). Food chemistry, 214, 227-233.
• Wickham, H. (2011). ggplot2. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews: computational statistics, 3(2), 180-185.
• Velasquez, M. T., Bhathena, S. A. M. J., Ranich, T., Schwartz, A. M., Kardon, D. E., Ali, A. L. I. A., and Hansen, C. T. (2003). Dietary flaxseed meal reduces proteinuria and ameliorates nephropathy in an animal model of type II diabetes mellitus. Kidney international, 64(6), 2100-2107.
• Yaşar, M. (2023). Sensitivity of different flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) genotypes to salinity determined by GE biplot. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 30(4). 103592.
• Yaşar, M. and Yetişsin, F. (2023). Determination of Tolerances of Some Flax Varieties to Different Doses of Salt Concentrations in Early Development Period. MAS Journal of Applied Sciences. 8(1): 144-157. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7698369.
• Zuk, M., Richter, D., Matuła, J., and Szopa, J. 2015. Linseed, the multipurpose plant. Industrial Crops and Products, 75, 165-177.